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143-462: The Martini–Enfield Mk I was a Martini–Henry Mk III rebarrelled to .303 and with a new extractor installed, whilst the Martini–Enfield Mk II rifles were generally of new manufacture, although there are examples of converted Mk II rifles. Originally (from 1889) Martini–Henry conversions used Metford rifled barrels (and were known as Martini–Metford rifles), which were more than suitable for

286-429: A foam zone . The gaseous propellant decomposes into simpler molecules in a surrounding fizz zone . Energy is released in a luminous outer flame zone where the simpler gas molecules react to form conventional combustion products like steam and carbon monoxide . The foam zone acts as an insulator slowing the rate of heat transfer from the flame zone into the unreacted solid. Reaction rates vary with pressure; because

429-659: A "long lance" sending forth "evil-smelling vapors and smoke", which has been variously interpreted by different historians as the "first-gas attack upon European soil" using gunpowder, "the first use of cannon in Europe", or merely a "toxic gas" with no evidence of gunpowder. It is difficult to accurately translate original Chinese alchemical texts, which tend to explain phenomena through metaphor, into modern scientific language with rigidly defined terminology in English. Early texts potentially mentioning gunpowder are sometimes marked by

572-409: A cloud of smoke. Gunpowder burns in a relatively inefficient process that produces lower pressures, making it about one-third as powerful as the same amount of smokeless powder. A significant portion of the combustion products from gunpowder are solids that are hygroscopic , i.e. they attract moisture from the air and make cleaning mandatory after every use, in order to prevent water accumulation in

715-460: A combination of Ottoman and Mughal designs. Shah Jahan also countered the British and other Europeans in his province of Gujarāt , which supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century. Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production. The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chhapra as a center of saltpeter refining. Ever since the founding of

858-559: A competent gunsmith before attempting to fire them. In advance to the Mk VII spitzer bullet introduction, a Mk III proof round with 20% higher pressure was introduced in 1908; rifles modified earlier and proven with previous marks may have a modified blackpowder-era breech block slightly weakened with the insertion of a new face, but the rifles with newly made breech blocks should withstand even WWII military surplus ammo. The Khyber Pass region between Pakistan and Afghanistan has long had

1001-409: A factory-produced example" to "dangerously unsafe", tending towards the latter end of the scale. The ammunition used in the region is often underloaded, being made from a variety of powders—or even old film (which contains nitrocellulose, a key component of smokeless powder ). As such, Khyber Pass Copy rifles cannot generally stand up to the pressures generated by modern commercial ammunition, because of

1144-473: A formula with near-identical ideal composition ratios for explosive gunpowder. Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204–1324 period, as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft , that they used for an earlier incendiary, naphtha. The earliest surviving documentary evidence for cannons in the Islamic world is from an Arabic manuscript dated to

1287-436: A gunpowder composition containing pure carbon would burn similarly to a match head, at best. The current standard composition for the gunpowder manufactured by pyrotechnicians was adopted as long ago as 1780. Proportions by weight are 75% potassium nitrate (known as saltpeter or saltpetre), 15% softwood charcoal, and 10% sulfur. These ratios have varied over the centuries and by country, and can be altered somewhat depending on

1430-534: A license to produce Ballistite , and DuPont started producing smokeless shotgun powder. The United States Army evaluated 25 varieties of smokeless powder and selected Ruby and Peyton Powders as the most suitable for use in the Krag–Jørgensen service rifle. Ruby was preferred, because tin-plating was required to protect brass cartridge cases from picric acid in the Peyton Powder . Rather than paying

1573-742: A linguistic process where semantic change occurred. For instance, the Arabic word naft transitioned from denoting naphtha to denoting gunpowder, and the Chinese word pào changed in meaning from trebuchet to a cannon . This has led to arguments on the exact origins of gunpowder based on etymological foundations. Science and technology historian Bert S. Hall makes the observation that, "It goes without saying, however, that historians bent on special pleading, or simply with axes of their own to grind, can find rich material in these terminological thickets." Another major area of contention in modern studies of

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1716-523: A medicine to an incendiary and explosive, and the evolution of the gun from the fire lance to a metal gun, whereas similar records do not exist elsewhere. As Andrade explains, the large amount of variation in gunpowder recipes in China relative to Europe is "evidence of experimentation in China, where gunpowder was at first used as an incendiary and only later became an explosive and a propellant... in contrast, formulas in Europe diverged only very slightly from

1859-438: A multistage draining and water washing process similar to that used in paper mills during production of chemical woodpulp . Pressurized alcohol removed remaining water from drained pyrocellulose prior to mixing with ether and diphenylamine. The mixture was then fed through a press extruding a long tubular cord form to be cut into grains of the desired length. Alcohol and ether were then evaporated from "green" powder grains to

2002-630: A nitrocellulose powder colloided with ether-alcohol. The Navy licensed or sold patents for this formulation to DuPont and the California Powder Works while retaining manufacturing rights for the Naval Powder Factory, Indian Head, Maryland constructed in 1900. The United States Army adopted the Navy single-base formulation in 1908 and began manufacture at Picatinny Arsenal . By that time Laflin & Rand had taken over

2145-594: A nitroglycerin replacement when reduced flame temperatures without sacrificing chamber pressure are of importance. Reduction of flame temperature significantly reduces barrel erosion and hence wear. During the 1930s, triple-base propellants containing nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin or diethylene glycol dinitrate, and a substantial quantity of nitroguanidine (detonation velocity 8,200 m/s (26,900 ft/s), RE factor 0.95) as explosive propellant ingredients were commercialized. The first triple-base propellant, featuring 20-25% of nitroguanidine and 30-45% nitroglycerine,

2288-493: A number of factors, notably: Many different versions of the original Enfield rifles are on sale at UN , United States or NATO -authorized bazaars usually adjacent to or within military or diplomatic installations in Afghanistan. Until that time, it was common to find a great variety of 'Khyber pass' fake weapons. These ranged a gamut of Martini–Henrys, Snider-converted original Enfield pattern 1853s, blatant knockoffs of

2431-450: A process for manufacturing spherical smokeless powder by 1933. Reworked powder or washed pyrocellulose can be dissolved in ethyl acetate containing small quantities of desired stabilizers and other additives. The resultant syrup, combined with water and surfactants , can be heated and agitated in a pressurized container until the syrup forms an emulsion of small spherical globules of the desired size. Ethyl acetate distills off as pressure

2574-838: A regular basis outside of China." May also states, "however [, ...] the Mongols used the gunpowder weapon in their wars against the Jin, the Song and in their invasions of Japan." Records show that, in England, gunpowder was being made in 1346 at the Tower of London ; a powder house existed at the Tower in 1461, and in 1515 three King's gunpowder makers worked there. Gunpowder was also being made or stored at other royal castles, such as Portchester . The English Civil War (1642–1645) led to an expansion of

2717-480: A remaining solvent concentration between 3 percent for rifle powders and 7 percent for large artillery powder grains. Burning rate is inversely proportional to solvent concentration. Grains were coated with electrically conductive graphite to minimize generation of static electricity during subsequent blending. "Lots" containing more than ten tonnes of powder grains were mixed through a tower arrangement of blending hoppers to minimize ballistic differences. Each blended lot

2860-581: A reputation for producing unlicensed, home-made copies of firearms using whatever materials are available-more often than not, railway sleepers, junked motor vehicles, and scrap metal. During the various British military expeditions in the North-West Frontier , the locals acquired examples of the Martini–Henry , Martini–Enfield, and later, Lee–Enfield rifles and began to make their own copies. The quality on such rifles varies from "As good as

3003-512: A ruler and tried to ward off any Mongol attempt similar to the Siege of Baghdad (1258) . Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in many Muslim kingdoms in India by as early as 1366. From then on the employment of gunpowder warfare in India was prevalent, with events such as the "Siege of Belgaum " in 1473 by Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani. The shipwrecked Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis

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3146-427: A shell, grenade, or improvised " pipe bomb " or "pressure cooker" casings to form shrapnel . In quarrying, high explosives are generally preferred for shattering rock. However, because of its low brisance , gunpowder causes fewer fractures and results in more usable stone compared to other explosives, making it useful for blasting slate , which is fragile, or monumental stone such as granite and marble . Gunpowder

3289-559: A shipwreck off the shore of Japan dated from 1281, during the Mongol invasions of Japan. By 1083 the Song court was producing hundreds of thousands of fire arrows for their garrisons. Bombs and the first proto-guns, known as "fire lances", became prominent during the 12th century and were used by the Song during the Jin-Song Wars . Fire lances were first recorded to have been used at the Siege of De'an in 1132 by Song forces against

3432-594: A soldier's position, generating fog that hinders vision, etc.). Some of it ends up as a thick layer of soot inside the barrel, where it also is a nuisance for subsequent shots, and a cause of jamming an automatic weapon. Moreover, this residue is hygroscopic , and with the addition of moisture absorbed from the air forms a corrosive substance . The soot contains potassium oxide or sodium oxide that turns into potassium hydroxide , or sodium hydroxide , which corrodes wrought iron or steel gun barrels. Gunpowder arms therefore require thorough and regular cleaning to remove

3575-470: A stabilizer in 1888. Meanwhile, in 1887, Alfred Nobel obtained an English patent for a smokeless gunpowder he called ballistite . In this propellant the fibrous structure of cotton (nitro-cellulose) was destroyed by a nitroglycerine solution instead of a solvent. In England in 1889, a similar powder was patented by Hiram Maxim , and in the United States in 1890 by Hudson Maxim . Ballistite

3718-408: A stock. Some consider this to be a cannon while others do not. The problem with identifying cannons in early 14th century Arabic texts is the term midfa , which appears from 1342 to 1352 but cannot be proven to be true hand-guns or bombards. Contemporary accounts of a metal-barrel cannon in the Islamic world do not occur until 1365. Needham believes that in its original form the term midfa refers to

3861-481: A wad), and by 1287 at the latest, had become true guns, the hand cannon . According to Iqtidar Alam Khan, it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world. The Muslims acquired knowledge of gunpowder sometime between 1240 and 1280, by which point the Syrian Hasan al-Rammah had written recipes, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. It

4004-446: Is a propellant that produces a large proportion of inert nitrogen at relatively low temperatures that dilutes the combustible gases. Triple-base propellants are used for this because of the nitrogen in the nitroguanidine. Flash reducers include potassium chloride , potassium nitrate , potassium sulfate , and potassium bitartrate (potassium hydrogen tartrate: a byproduct of wine production formerly used by French artillery). Before

4147-547: Is a type of propellant used in firearms and artillery that produces less smoke and less fouling when fired compared to black powder . Because of their similar use, both the original black powder formulation and the smokeless propellant which replaced it are commonly described as gunpowder . The combustion products of smokeless powder are mainly gaseous, compared to around 55% solid products (mostly potassium carbonate , potassium sulfate , and potassium sulfide ) for black powder. In addition, smokeless powder does not leave

4290-469: Is added to some formulations. To prevent buildup of the deterioration products, stabilizers are added. Diphenylamine is one of the most common stabilizers used. Nitrated analogs of diphenylamine formed in the process of stabilizing decomposing powder are sometimes used as stabilizers themselves. The stabilizers are added in the amount of 0.5–2% of the total amount of the formulation; higher amounts tend to degrade its ballistic properties. The amount of

4433-430: Is an advantage in a propellant device, where one does not desire a shock that would shatter the gun and potentially harm the operator; however, it is a drawback when an explosion is desired. In that case, the propellant (and most importantly, gases produced by its burning) must be confined. Since it contains its own oxidizer and additionally burns faster under pressure, its combustion is capable of bursting containers such as

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4576-778: Is cited as composed of 79% nitre, 3% sulfur, and 18% charcoal per 100 of dry powder, with about 2% moisture. Prismatic Brown Powder is a large-grained product the Rottweil Company introduced in 1884 in Germany, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy shortly thereafter. The French navy adopted a fine, 3.1 millimeter, not prismatic grained product called Slow Burning Cocoa (SBC) or "cocoa powder". These brown powders reduced burning rate even further by using as little as 2 percent sulfur and using charcoal made from rye straw that had not been completely charred, hence

4719-400: Is classified as a low explosive because of its relatively slow decomposition rate, low ignition temperature and consequently low brisance (breaking/shattering) . Low explosives deflagrate (i.e., burn at subsonic speeds), whereas high explosives detonate , producing a supersonic shockwave . Ignition of gunpowder packed behind a projectile generates enough pressure to force the shot from

4862-532: Is implied by al-Rammah's usage of "terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources" and his references to saltpeter as "Chinese snow" ( Arabic : ثلج الصين thalj al-ṣīn ), fireworks as "Chinese flowers", and rockets as "Chinese arrows" that knowledge of gunpowder arrived from China. However, because al-Rammah attributes his material to "his father and forefathers", al-Hassan argues that gunpowder became prevalent in Syria and Egypt by "the end of

5005-451: Is increased by addition of graphite and organic stabilizers. Products of combustion within the gun barrel include flammable gasses like hydrogen and carbon monoxide. At high temperature, these flammable gasses will ignite when turbulently mixed with atmospheric oxygen beyond the muzzle of the gun. During night engagements, the flash produced by ignition can reveal the location of the gun to enemy forces and cause temporary night-blindness among

5148-682: Is known to have introduced the earliest type of matchlock weapons, which the Ottomans used against the Portuguese during the Siege of Diu (1531) . After that, a diverse variety of firearms, large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore , Dacca , Bijapur , and Murshidabad . Guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504)- the former capital of the Zamorins The Mughal emperor Akbar mass-produced matchlocks for

5291-553: Is one of the Four Great Inventions of China. Originally developed by Taoists for medicinal purposes, it was first used for warfare around AD 904. Its use in weapons has declined due to smokeless powder replacing it, whilst its relative inefficiency led to newer alternatives such as dynamite and ammonium nitrate/fuel oil replacing it in industrial applications. Gunpowder is a low explosive : it does not detonate , but rather deflagrates (burns quickly). This

5434-472: Is that it was William Lobb , the plant collector, who recognised the possibilities of sodium nitrate during his travels in South America. Lammot du Pont would have known about the use of graphite and probably also knew about the plants in south-west England. In his patent he was careful to state that his claim was for the combination of graphite with sodium nitrate-based powder, rather than for either of

5577-481: Is the earliest known chemical explosive . It consists of a mixture of sulfur , charcoal (which is mostly carbon ), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter) . The sulfur and charcoal act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer . Gunpowder has been widely used as a propellant in firearms , artillery , rocketry , and pyrotechnics , including use as a blasting agent for explosives in quarrying , mining , building pipelines , tunnels , and roads . Gunpowder

5720-443: Is to regulate the burn rate so that a more or less constant pressure is exerted on the propelled projectile as long as it is in the barrel so as to obtain the highest velocity. The perforations stabilize the burn rate because as the outside burns inward (thus shrinking the burning surface area) the inside is burning outward (thus increasing the burning surface area, but faster, so as to fill up the increasing volume of barrel presented by

5863-416: Is well suited for blank rounds , signal flares , burst charges , and rescue-line launches. It is also used in fireworks for lifting shells, in rockets as fuel, and in certain special effects . Combustion converts less than half the mass of gunpowder to gas; most of it turns into particulate matter. Some of it is ejected, wasting propelling power, fouling the air, and generally being a nuisance (giving away

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6006-706: The Delhi Sultanate , and some of the Mongol soldiers remained in northern India after their conversion to Islam. It was written in the Tarikh-i Firishta (1606–1607) that Nasiruddin Mahmud the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate presented the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulegu Khan with a dazzling pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi in 1258. Nasiruddin Mahmud tried to express his strength as

6149-473: The Jin . In the early 13th century the Jin used iron-casing bombs. Projectiles were added to fire lances, and re-usable fire lance barrels were developed, first out of hardened paper, and then metal. By 1257 some fire lances were firing wads of bullets. In the late 13th century metal fire lances became 'eruptors', proto-cannons firing co-viative projectiles (mixed with the propellant, rather than seated over it with

6292-508: The Khmer Empire . Within a decade large quantities of gunpowder could be found in the Khmer Empire . By the end of the century firearms were also used by the Trần dynasty . Even though the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapons was known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java, and the predecessor of firearms, the pole gun ( bedil tombak ), is recorded as being used by Java in 1413,

6435-468: The Mughal Army . Akbar is personally known to have shot a leading Rajput commander during the Siege of Chittorgarh . The Mughals began to use bamboo rockets (mainly for signalling) and employ sappers : special units that undermined heavy stone fortifications to plant gunpowder charges. The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan is known to have introduced much more advanced matchlocks, their designs were

6578-715: The Naval Torpedo Station in Newport, Rhode Island , patented a formulation of guncotton colloided with nitrobenzene, called Indurite , in 1891. Several United States firms began producing smokeless powder when Winchester Repeating Arms Company started loading sporting cartridges with Explosives Company powder in 1893. California Powder Works began producing a mixture of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose with ammonium picrate as Peyton Powder , Leonard Smokeless Powder Company began producing nitroglycerine–nitrocellulose Ruby powders, Laflin & Rand negotiated

6721-547: The RDX type (detonation velocity 8,750 m/s (28,710 ft/s), RE factor 1.60). Detonation velocities are of limited value in assessing the reaction rates of nitrocellulose propellants formulated to avoid detonation. Although the slower reaction is often described as burning because of similar gaseous end products at elevated temperatures, the decomposition differs from combustion in an oxygen atmosphere. Conversion of nitrocellulose propellants to high-pressure gas proceeds from

6864-738: The Sultanate of Mysore by Hyder Ali , French military officers were employed to train the Mysore Army. Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan were the first to introduce modern cannons and muskets , their army was also the first in India to have official uniforms. During the Second Anglo-Mysore War Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan unleashed the Mysorean rockets at their British opponents effectively defeating them on various occasions. The Mysorean rockets inspired

7007-705: The capture of Malacca (1511) resulted in a new type of hybrid tradition matchlock firearm, the istinggar . When the Portuguese came to the archipelago, they referred to the breech-loading swivel gun as berço , while the Spaniards call it verso . By the early 16th century, the Javanese already locally producing large guns, some of them still survived until the present day and dubbed as "sacred cannon" or "holy cannon". These cannons varied between 180- and 260-pounders, weighing anywhere between 3 and 8 tons, length of them between 3 and 6 m. Saltpeter harvesting

7150-415: The droit de fouille or "right to dig", to seize nitrous-containing soil and demolish walls of barnyards, without compensation to the owners. This caused farmers, the wealthy, or entire villages to bribe the petermen and the associated bureaucracy to leave their buildings alone and the saltpeter uncollected. Lavoisier instituted a crash program to increase saltpeter production, revised (and later eliminated)

7293-403: The droit de fouille , researched best refining and powder manufacturing methods, instituted management and record-keeping, and established pricing that encouraged private investment in works. Although saltpeter from new Prussian-style putrefaction works had not been produced yet (the process taking about 18 months), in only a year France had gunpowder to export. A chief beneficiary of this surplus

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7436-807: The 9th century AD during the Tang dynasty , first in a formula contained in the Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue (太上聖祖金丹秘訣) in 808, and then about 50 years later in a Taoist text known as the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe (真元妙道要略). The Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue mentions a formula composed of six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb. According to the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe , "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey ; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even

7579-549: The American Powder Company to protect their investment, and Laflin & Rand had been purchased by DuPont in 1902. Upon securing a 99-year lease of the Explosives Company in 1903, DuPont enjoyed use of all significant smokeless powder patents in the United States, and was able to optimize production of smokeless powder. When government anti-trust action forced divestiture in 1912, DuPont retained

7722-548: The Austrian factories blew up in 1862, Thomas Prentice & Company began manufacturing guncotton in Stowmarket in 1863; and British War Office chemist Sir Frederick Abel began thorough research at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills leading to a manufacturing process that eliminated the impurities in nitrocellulose making it safer to produce and a stable product safer to handle. Abel patented this process in 1865 when

7865-615: The Explosives Company at Stowmarket patented an improved formulation of nitrated cotton gelatinised by ether-alcohol with nitrates of potassium and barium . These propellants were suitable for shotguns but not rifles, because rifling results in resistance to a smooth expansion of the gas, which is reduced in smoothbore shotguns. In 1884, Paul Vieille invented a smokeless powder called Poudre B (short for poudre blanche , white powder, as distinguished from black powder ) made from 68.2% insoluble nitrocellulose , 29.8% soluble nitrocellulose gelatinized with ether and 2% paraffin. This

8008-494: The Faversham factory in 1847. Austrian Baron Wilhelm Lenk von Wolfsberg built two guncotton plants producing artillery propellent, but it too was dangerous under field conditions, and guns that could fire thousands of rounds using black powder would reach the end of their service life after only a few hundred shots with the more powerful guncotton. Small arms could not withstand the pressures generated by guncotton. After one of

8151-510: The French use of nitro-cottons in Poudre B. He called it pyrocollodion . Britain conducted trials on all the various types of propellant brought to its attention, but was dissatisfied with them all and sought something superior to all existing types. In 1889, Sir Frederick Abel , James Dewar and Dr W Kellner patented (Nos 5614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) a new formulation that

8294-462: The Mach disc, they are re-compressed to produce an intermediate flash. Hot, combustible gases (e.g. hydrogen and carbon-monoxide) may follow when they mix with oxygen in the surrounding air to produce the secondary flash, the brightest. The secondary flash does not usually occur with small arms. Nitrocellulose contains insufficient oxygen to completely oxidize its carbon and hydrogen. The oxygen deficit

8437-871: The Martini–Henry rifles that lacked all British markings completely and were often engraved with popular Middle Eastern geometric and scrollwork designs. After the limitations regarding the loading method cut the supply of these being brought into bazaars went into effect, many of the vendors simply resorted to bringing fake muzzle-loading British pattern 1853 'Tower' rifles to sell as send-home replicas. While some vendors may claim them to be made by Enfield, most usually make no claim at all regarding their authenticity. Small Arms Identification Series No. 15: .450 & .303 Martini Rifles & Carbines (2002) Skennerton, Ian, Arms & Militaria Press, Gold Coast, QLD Black powder Gunpowder , also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder ,

8580-463: The Mongols against European forces at the Battle of Mohi in 1241. Professor Kenneth Warren Chase credits the Mongols for introducing into Europe gunpowder and its associated weaponry. However, there is no clear route of transmission, and while the Mongols are often pointed to as the likeliest vector, Timothy May points out that "there is no concrete evidence that the Mongols used gunpowder weapons on

8723-518: The U.S. until the 1920s that the actual source of corrosion was the potassium chloride residue from potassium chlorate sensitized primers. The bulkier black powder fouling better disperses primer residue. Failure to mitigate primer corrosion by dispersion caused the false impression that nitrocellulose-based powder caused corrosion. Lesmok had some of the bulk of black powder for dispersing primer residue, but somewhat less total bulk than straight black powder, thus requiring less frequent bore cleaning. It

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8866-510: The United Kingdom, the finest grain was known as sulfur-free mealed powder ( SMP ). Coarser grains were numbered as sulfur-free gunpowder (SFG n): 'SFG 12', 'SFG 20', 'SFG 40' and 'SFG 90', for example where the number represents the smallest BSS sieve mesh size, which retained no grains. Sulfur's main role in gunpowder is to decrease the ignition temperature. A sample reaction for sulfur-free gunpowder would be: The term black powder

9009-481: The barrel (though some primer compounds can leave hygroscopic salts that have a similar effect; non-corrosive primer compounds were introduced in the 1920s). ) Faster-burning propellants generate higher temperatures and higher pressures, however they also increase wear on gun barrels. Nitrocellulose deteriorates with time, yielding acidic byproducts. Those byproducts catalyze the further deterioration, increasing its rate. The released heat, in case of bulk storage of

9152-460: The barrel that can lead to corrosion and premature failure. These solids are also behind gunpowder's tendency to produce severe fouling that causes breech-loading actions to jam and can make reloading difficult. Nitroglycerine was synthesized by the Italian chemist Ascanio Sobrero in 1847. It was subsequently developed and manufactured by Alfred Nobel as an industrial explosive under

9295-404: The brown color. Lesmok powder was a product developed by DuPont in 1911, one of several semi-smokeless products in the industry containing a mixture of black and nitrocellulose powder. It was sold to Winchester and others primarily for .22 and .32 small calibers. Its advantage was that it was believed at the time to be less corrosive than smokeless powders then in use. It was not understood in

9438-530: The buildup of copper residues from the gun barrel rifling. These include tin metal and compounds (e.g., tin dioxide ), and bismuth metal and compounds (e.g., bismuth trioxide , bismuth subcarbonate , bismuth nitrate , bismuth antimonide ); the bismuth compounds are favored as copper dissolves in molten bismuth, forming brittle and easily removable alloy. Lead foil and lead compounds have been phased out due to toxicity. Wear reduction materials including wax , talc and titanium dioxide are added to lower

9581-399: The bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920s. The original dry-compounded powder used in 15th-century Europe was known as "Serpentine", either a reference to Satan or to a common artillery piece that used it. The ingredients were ground together with a mortar and pestle, perhaps for 24 hours, resulting in a fine flour. Vibration during transportation could cause

9724-603: The burning rate. Deterrents include centralites (symmetrical diphenyl urea—primarily diethyl or dimethyl), dibutyl phthalate , dinitrotoluene (toxic and carcinogenic), akardite (asymmetrical diphenyl urea), ortho-Tolyl urethane, and polyester adipate. Camphor was formerly used but is now obsolete. Stabilizers prevent or slow down self-decomposition. These include diphenylamine , petroleum jelly , calcium carbonate , magnesium oxide , sodium bicarbonate , and beta-Naphthol methyl ether Obsolete stabilizers include amyl alcohol and aniline . Decoppering additives hinder

9867-539: The chamber (hence lighter breeches, etc.) but longer high pressure. Cordite could be made in any desired shape or size. The creation of cordite led to a lengthy court battle between Nobel, Maxim, and another inventor over alleged British patent infringement. The Anglo-American Explosives Company began manufacturing its shotgun powder in Oakland, New Jersey , in 1890. DuPont began producing guncotton at Carneys Point Township, New Jersey , in 1891. Charles E. Munroe of

10010-427: The compass, and printing did not reach Europe until centuries after they were invented in China. Gunpowder is a granular mixture of: Potassium nitrate is the most important ingredient in terms of both bulk and function because the combustion process releases oxygen from the potassium nitrate, promoting the rapid burning of the other ingredients. To reduce the likelihood of accidental ignition by static electricity ,

10153-449: The components to separate again, requiring remixing in the field. Also if the quality of the saltpeter was low (for instance if it was contaminated with highly hygroscopic calcium nitrate ), or if the powder was simply old (due to the mildly hygroscopic nature of potassium nitrate), in humid weather it would need to be re-dried. The dust from "repairing" powder in the field was a major hazard. Smokeless powder Smokeless powder

10296-553: The decline of its military might. The earliest Western accounts of gunpowder appear in texts written by English philosopher Roger Bacon in 1267 called Opus Majus and Opus Tertium . The oldest written recipes in continental Europe were recorded under the name Marcus Graecus or Mark the Greek between 1280 and 1300 in the Liber Ignium , or Book of Fires . Some sources mention possible gunpowder weapons being deployed by

10439-500: The departing projectile). Fast-burning pistol powders are made by extruding shapes with more area such as flakes or by flattening the spherical granules. Drying is usually performed under a vacuum. The solvents are condensed and recycled. The granules are also coated with graphite to prevent static electricity sparks from causing undesired ignitions. Smokeless powder does not leave the thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of

10582-487: The development of modern semi- and fully automatic firearms and lighter breeches and barrels for artillery. Before the widespread introduction of smokeless powder the use of gunpowder or black powder caused many problems on the battlefield. Military commanders since the Napoleonic Wars reported difficulty with giving orders on a battlefield obscured by the smoke of firing. Visual signals could not be seen through

10725-668: The development of the Congreve rocket , which the British widely used during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 . Cannons were introduced to Majapahit when Kublai Khan's Chinese army under the leadership of Ike Mese sought to invade Java in 1293. History of Yuan mentioned that the Mongol used cannons (Chinese: 炮— Pào ) against Daha forces. Cannons were used by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1352 during its invasion of

10868-549: The earliest Latin accounts of saltpeter purification are dated after 1200. The earliest chemical formula for gunpowder appeared in the 11th century Song dynasty text, Wujing Zongyao ( Complete Essentials from the Military Classics ), written by Zeng Gongliang between 1040 and 1044. The Wujing Zongyao provides encyclopedia references to a variety of mixtures that included petrochemicals—as well as garlic and honey. A slow match for flame-throwing mechanisms using

11011-459: The early 14th century. The author's name is uncertain but may have been Shams al-Din Muhammad, who died in 1350. Dating from around 1320–1350, the illustrations show gunpowder weapons such as gunpowder arrows, bombs, fire tubes, and fire lances or proto-guns. The manuscript describes a type of gunpowder weapon called a midfa which uses gunpowder to shoot projectiles out of a tube at the end of

11154-415: The effectiveness of small guns because it gave off almost no smoke and was three times more powerful than black powder. Higher muzzle velocity meant a flatter trajectory and less wind drift and bullet drop, making 1,000 m (1,094 yd) shots practicable. Since less powder was needed to propel a bullet, the cartridge could be made smaller and lighter. This allowed troops to carry more ammunition for

11297-790: The end of World War II , and of ICI Nobel 's Roslin gunpowder factory which closed in 1954. This left ICI Nobel's Ardeer site in Scotland , which included a gunpowder factory, as the only factory in Great Britain producing gunpowder. The gunpowder area of the Ardeer site closed in October 1976. Gunpowder and gunpowder weapons were transmitted to India through the Mongol invasions of India . The Mongols were defeated by Alauddin Khalji of

11440-454: The exposed surface to the interior of each solid particle in accordance with Piobert's law . Studies of solid single- and double-base propellant reactions suggest reaction rate is controlled by heat transfer through the temperature gradient across a series of zones or phases as the reaction proceeds from the surface into the solid. The deepest portion of the solid experiencing heat transfer melts and begins phase transition from solid to gas in

11583-482: The fact, and may well have been colored by the contemporary experiences of the chronicler. Translation difficulties have led to errors or loose interpretations bordering on artistic licence . Ambiguous language can make it difficult to distinguish gunpowder weapons from similar technologies that do not rely on gunpowder. A commonly cited example is a report of the Battle of Mohi in Eastern Europe that mentions

11726-559: The first .303 cartridges, which used black powder as a propellant but wore out very quickly when fired with cordite /nitrocellulose cartridges (introduced in 1895). In 1895, the Enfield rifled barrel was introduced, which was much more suitable for use with "modern" (smokeless) ammunition. The Martini–Enfield saw service with Australian colonial forces during the Second Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902). The Martini–Enfield

11869-642: The foam allows less effective heat transfer at low pressure, with greater heat transfer as higher pressures compress the gas volume of that foam. Propellants designed for a minimum heat transfer pressure may fail to sustain the flame zone at lower pressures. The energetic components used in smokeless propellants include nitrocellulose (the most common), nitroglycerin , nitroguanidine , DINA (bis-nitroxyethylnitramine; diethanolamine dinitrate, DEADN; DHE), Fivonite (2,2,5,5-tetramethylol-cyclopentanone tetranitrate, CyP), DGN ( diethylene glycol dinitrate ), and acetyl cellulose. Deterrents (or moderants) are used to slow

12012-632: The former Curtis & Harvey 's Glynneath gunpowder factory at Pontneddfechan in Wales closed down. The factory was demolished by fire in 1932. The last remaining gunpowder mill at the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey was damaged by a German parachute mine in 1941 and it never reopened. This was followed by the closure and demolition of the gunpowder section at the Royal Ordnance Factory , ROF Chorley , at

12155-411: The granules of modern gunpowder are typically coated with graphite , which prevents the build-up of electrostatic charge. Charcoal does not consist of pure carbon; rather, it consists of partially pyrolyzed cellulose , in which the wood is not completely decomposed. Carbon differs from ordinary charcoal . Whereas charcoal's autoignition temperature is relatively low, carbon's is much greater. Thus,

12298-402: The gun crew by photo-bleaching visual purple . Flash suppressors are commonly used on small arms to reduce the flash signature, but this approach is not practical for artillery. Artillery muzzle flash up to 150 feet (46 m) from the muzzle has been observed, and can be reflected off clouds and be visible for distances up to 30 miles (48 km). For artillery, the most effective method

12441-584: The gunpowder industry, with the repeal of the Royal Patent in August 1641. In late 14th century Europe, gunpowder was improved by corning , the practice of drying it into small clumps to improve combustion and consistency. During this time, European manufacturers also began regularly purifying saltpeter, using wood ashes containing potassium carbonate to precipitate calcium from their dung liquor, and using ox blood, alum , and slices of turnip to clarify

12584-468: The history of gunpowder is regarding the transmission of gunpowder. While the literary and archaeological evidence supports a Chinese origin for gunpowder and guns, the manner in which gunpowder technology was transferred from China to the West is still under debate. It is unknown why the rapid spread of gunpowder technology across Eurasia took place over several decades whereas other technologies such as paper,

12727-429: The ideal proportions for use as an explosive and a propellant, suggesting that gunpowder was introduced as a mature technology." However, the history of gunpowder is not without controversy. A major problem confronting the study of early gunpowder history is ready access to sources close to the events described. Often the first records potentially describing use of gunpowder in warfare were written several centuries after

12870-732: The knowledge of making "true" firearms came much later, after the middle of the 15th century. It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, most probably the Arabs . The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460. Before the arrival of the Portuguese in Southeast Asia, the natives already possessed primitive firearms, the Java arquebus . Portuguese influence to local weaponry after

13013-627: The largest pieces. The United States Navy manufactured single-base tubular powder for naval artillery at Indian Head, Maryland , beginning in 1900. Similar procedures were used for United States Army production at Picatinny Arsenal beginning in 1907 and for manufacture of smaller grained Improved Military Rifle (IMR) powders after 1914. Short-fiber cotton linter was boiled in a solution of sodium hydroxide to remove vegetable waxes, and then dried before conversion to nitrocellulose by mixing with concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids . Nitrocellulose still resembles fibrous cotton at this point in

13156-571: The late 19th century led to a contraction of the gunpowder industry. After the end of World War I , the majority of the British gunpowder manufacturers merged into a single company, "Explosives Trades limited", and a number of sites were closed down, including those in Ireland. This company became Nobel Industries Limited, and in 1926 became a founding member of Imperial Chemical Industries . The Home Office removed gunpowder from its list of Permitted Explosives . Shortly afterwards, on 31 December 1931,

13299-403: The light emitted in the vicinity of the muzzle by the hot propellant gases and the chemical reactions that follow as the gases mix with the surrounding air. Before projectiles exit, a slight pre-flash may occur from gases leaking past the projectiles. Following muzzle exit, the heat of gases is usually sufficient to emit visible radiation: the primary flash. The gases expand but as they pass through

13442-419: The main problem of using cheaper sodium nitrate formulations when he patented DuPont "B" blasting powder. After manufacturing grains from press-cake in the usual way, his process tumbled the powder with graphite dust for 12 hours. This formed a graphite coating on each grain that reduced its ability to absorb moisture. Neither the use of graphite nor sodium nitrate was new. Glossing gunpowder corns with graphite

13585-403: The manufacturing process, and was typically identified as pyrocellulose because it would spontaneously ignite in air until unreacted acid was removed. The term guncotton was also used; although some references identify guncotton as a more extensively nitrated and refined product used in torpedo and mine warheads prior to use of TNT . Unreacted acid was removed from pyrocellulose pulp by

13728-520: The median of 17 of these 22 compositions for rockets (75% nitrates, 9.06% sulfur, and 15.94% charcoal), it is nearly identical to the modern reported ideal recipe of 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur, and 15% charcoal. The text also mentions fuses, incendiary bombs, naphtha pots, fire lances, and an illustration and description of the earliest torpedo . The torpedo was called the "egg which moves itself and burns". Two iron sheets were fastened together and tightened using felt. The flattened pear-shaped vessel

13871-447: The mid-17th century fireworks were used for entertainment on an unprecedented scale in Europe, being popular even at resorts and public gardens. With the publication of Deutliche Anweisung zur Feuerwerkerey (1748), methods for creating fireworks were sufficiently well-known and well-described that "Firework making has become an exact science." In 1774 Louis XVI ascended to the throne of France at age 20. After he discovered that France

14014-401: The most. During WWII they had some use by British and German artillery, and after the war they became the standard propellants in all British large-caliber ammunition designs except small arms. Most Western nations, except the United States, followed a similar path. In the late 20th century new propellant formulations started to appear. These are based on nitroguanidine and high explosives of

14157-436: The muzzle at high speed, but usually not enough force to rupture the gun barrel . It thus makes a good propellant but is less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications with its low-yield explosive power. Nonetheless, it was widely used to fill fused artillery shells (and used in mining and civil engineering projects) until the second half of the 19th century, when the first high explosives were put into use. Gunpowder

14300-422: The nitrocellulose smokeless powder formulations used by the United States military and released the double-base formulations used in sporting ammunition to the reorganized Hercules Powder Company . These newer and more powerful propellants were more stable and thus safer to handle than Poudre B. The properties of the propellant are greatly influenced by the size and shape of its pieces. The specific surface area of

14443-560: The paper absorbed atmospheric moisture. In 1871, Frederick Volkmann received an Austrian patent for a colloided version of Schultze powder called Collodin , which he manufactured near Vienna for use in sporting firearms. Austrian patents were not published at the time, and the Austrian Empire considered the operation a violation of the government monopoly on explosives manufacture and closed the Volkmann factory in 1875. In 1882,

14586-404: The powder, or too large blocks of solid propellant, can cause self-ignition of the material. Single-base nitrocellulose propellants are hygroscopic and most susceptible to degradation; double-base and triple-base propellants tend to deteriorate more slowly. To neutralize the decomposition products, which could otherwise cause corrosion of metals of the cartridges and gun barrels, calcium carbonate

14729-461: The propellant influences the speed of burning, and the size and shape of the particles determine the specific surface area. By manipulation of the shape it is possible to influence the burning rate and hence the rate at which pressure builds during combustion. Smokeless powder burns only on the surfaces of the pieces. Larger pieces burn more slowly, and the burn rate is further controlled by flame-deterrent coatings that retard burning slightly. The intent

14872-413: The purest sulfur was supplied from a crater from a mountain near the straits of Bali . On the origins of gunpowder technology, historian Tonio Andrade remarked, "Scholars today overwhelmingly concur that the gun was invented in China." Gunpowder and the gun are widely believed by historians to have originated from China due to the large body of evidence that documents the evolution of gunpowder from

15015-482: The purpose of the powder. For instance, power grades of black powder, unsuitable for use in firearms but adequate for blasting rock in quarrying operations, are called blasting powder rather than gunpowder with standard proportions of 70% nitrate, 14% charcoal, and 16% sulfur; blasting powder may be made with the cheaper sodium nitrate substituted for potassium nitrate and proportions may be as low as 40% nitrate, 30% charcoal, and 30% sulfur. In 1857, Lammot du Pont solved

15158-573: The required royalties for Ballistite , Laflin & Rand financed Leonard's reorganization as the American Smokeless Powder Company. United States Army Lieutenant Whistler assisted American Smokeless Powder Company factory superintendent Aspinwall in formulating an improved powder named W.A. for their efforts. W.A. smokeless powder was the standard for United States military service rifles from 1897 until 1908. In 1897, United States Navy Lieutenant John Bernadou patented

15301-425: The residue. Gunpowder loads can be used in modern firearms as long as they are not gas-operated . The most compatible modern guns are smoothbore-barreled shotguns that are long-recoil operated with chrome-plated essential parts such as barrels and bores. Such guns have minimal fouling and corrosion and are easier to clean. The first confirmed reference to what can be considered gunpowder in China occurred in

15444-470: The same weight. Also, it would burn even when wet. Black powder ammunition had to be kept dry and was almost always stored and transported in watertight cartridges. Other European countries swiftly followed and started using their own versions of Poudre B, the first being Germany and Austria, which introduced new weapons in 1888. Subsequently, Poudre B was modified several times with various compounds being added and removed. Krupp began adding diphenylamine as

15587-591: The second Austrian guncotton factory exploded. After the Stowmarket factory exploded in 1871, Waltham Abbey began production of guncotton for torpedo and mine warheads. In 1863, Prussian artillery captain Johann F. E. Schultze patented a small-arms propellant of nitrated hardwood impregnated with saltpeter or barium nitrate . Prentice received an 1866 patent for a sporting powder of nitrated paper manufactured at Stowmarket, but ballistic uniformity suffered as

15730-445: The significant possibility of severe injury or death to the operator it is generally advised that such weapons should not be fired under any but the most extremely unlikely rare and desperate circumstances, although some collectors have made mild handloaded cartridges for their Khyber Pass rifles. This practice is not recommended, and anyone firing a Khyber Pass rifle is doing so at their own risk. Khyber Pass Copies can be recognised by

15873-414: The siphon principle and for fireworks and rockets is mentioned. The mixture formulas in this book contain at most 50% saltpeter   —   not enough to create an explosion, they produce an incendiary instead. The Essentials was written by a Song dynasty court bureaucrat and there is little evidence that it had any immediate impact on warfare; there is no mention of its use in the chronicles of

16016-424: The sole explosive propellant ingredient are described as single-base powder . Propellants mixtures containing nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin (detonation velocity 7,700 m/s (25,260 ft/s), RE factor 1.54) as explosive propellant ingredients are known as double-base powder . Alternatively diethylene glycol dinitrate (detonation velocity 6,610 m/s (21,690 ft/s), RE factor 1.17) can be used as

16159-622: The solution. During the Renaissance, two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in Italy and the other at Nuremberg, Germany. In Italy, Vannoccio Biringuccio , born in 1480, was a member of the guild Fraternita di Santa Barbara but broke with the tradition of secrecy by setting down everything he knew in a book titled De la pirotechnia , written in vernacular. It was published posthumously in 1540, with 9 editions over 138 years, and also reprinted by MIT Press in 1966. By

16302-474: The stabilizer is depleted with time with substantial changes of ballistic properties. Propellants in storage should be periodically tested for the amount of stabilizer remaining, as its depletion may lead to auto-ignition of the propellant. Moisture changes the stabilizers consumption over time. Propellants using nitrocellulose ( detonation velocity 7,300 m/s (23,950 ft/s), RE factor 1.10) (typically an ether-alcohol colloid of nitrocellulose) as

16445-849: The term was also used to describe various picrate mixtures with nitrate , chlorate , or dichromate oxidizers during the late 19th century, before the advantages of nitrocellulose became evident. Smokeless powders are typically classified as division 1.3 explosives under the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods  – Model Regulations , regional regulations (such as ADR ) and national regulations. However, they are used as solid propellants ; in normal use, they undergo deflagration rather than detonation . Smokeless powder made autoloading firearms with many moving parts feasible (which would otherwise jam or seize under heavy black powder fouling). Smokeless powder allowed

16588-494: The thick smoke from the gunpowder used by the guns. Unless there was a strong wind, after a few shots, soldiers using gunpowder ammunition would have their view obscured by a huge cloud of smoke, and this problem became worse with increasing rate of fire. In 1884 during the Battle of Tamai Sudanese troops were able to break the square of British infantry armed with Martini–Henries because of that. Sharpshooters firing from concealed positions risked revealing their locations with

16731-408: The thick, heavy fouling of hygroscopic material associated with black powder that causes rusting of the barrel. Despite its name, smokeless powder is not completely free of smoke ; while there may be little noticeable smoke from small-arms ammunition, smoke from artillery fire can be substantial. Invented in 1884 by Paul Vieille , the most common formulations are based on nitrocellulose , but

16874-519: The time. The state-controlled manufacture of gunpowder by the Ottoman Empire through early supply chains to obtain nitre, sulfur and high-quality charcoal from oaks in Anatolia contributed significantly to its expansion between the 15th and 18th century. It was not until later in the 19th century when the syndicalist production of Turkish gunpowder was greatly reduced, which coincided with

17017-435: The trademark " Dynamite ", but even then it was unsuitable as a propellant: despite its energetic and smokeless qualities, it detonates at supersonic speed , as opposed to deflagrating smoothly at subsonic speeds, making it more liable to shatter a gun barrel rather than propel a projectile out of it. Nitroglycerine is also highly shock-sensitive, making it unfit to be carried in battlefield conditions. A major step forward

17160-463: The tube or cylinder of a naphtha projector ( flamethrower ), then after the invention of gunpowder it meant the tube of fire lances, and eventually it applied to the cylinder of hand-guns and cannons. According to Paul E. J. Hammer, the Mamluks certainly used cannons by 1342. According to J. Lavin, cannons were used by Moors at the siege of Algeciras in 1343. A metal cannon firing an iron ball

17303-446: The twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth". In Persia saltpeter was known as "Chinese salt" ( Persian : نمک چینی ) namak-i chīnī ) or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" ( نمک شوره چینی namak-i shūra-yi chīnī ). Hasan al-Rammah included 107 gunpowder recipes in his text al-Furusiyyah wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya ( The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices ), 22 of which are for rockets. If one takes

17446-470: The two individual technologies. French war powder in 1879 used the ratio 75% saltpeter, 12.5% charcoal, 12.5% sulfur. English war powder in 1879 used the ratio 75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal, 10% sulfur. The British Congreve rockets used 62.4% saltpeter, 23.2% charcoal and 14.4% sulfur, but the British Mark VII gunpowder was changed to 65% saltpeter, 20% charcoal and 15% sulfur. The explanation for

17589-760: The use of triple-base propellants, the usual method of flash reduction was to add inorganic salts like potassium chloride so their specific heat capacity might reduce the temperature of combustion gasses and their finely divided particulate smoke might block visible wavelengths of radiant energy of combustion. All flash reducers have a disadvantage: the production of smoke. Smokeless powder may be corned into small spherical balls or extruded into cylinders or strips with many cross-sectional shapes (strips with various rectangular proportions, single or multi-hole cylinders, slotted cylinders) using solvents such as ether. These extrusions can be cut into short ("flakes") or long pieces ("cords" many inches long). Cannon powder has

17732-528: The wars against the Tanguts in the 11th century, and China was otherwise mostly at peace during this century. However, it had already been used for fire arrows since at least the 10th century. Its first recorded military application dates its use to 904 in the form of incendiary projectiles. In the following centuries various gunpowder weapons such as bombs , fire lances , and the gun appeared in China. Explosive weapons such as bombs have been discovered in

17875-422: The wear of the gun barrel liners. Large guns use polyurethane jackets over the powder bags. Other additives include ethyl acetate (a solvent for manufacture of spherical powder), rosin (a surfactant to hold the grain shape of spherical powder) and graphite (a lubricant to cover the grains and prevent them from sticking together, and to dissipate static electricity ). Flash reducers dim muzzle flash ,

18018-408: The whole house where they were working burned down." Based on these Taoist texts, the invention of gunpowder by Chinese alchemists was likely an accidental byproduct from experiments seeking to create the elixir of life . This experimental medicine origin is reflected in its Chinese name huoyao ( Chinese : 火药/火藥 ; pinyin : huǒ yào /xuo yɑʊ/ ), which means "fire medicine". Saltpeter

18161-517: The wide variety in formulation relates to usage. Powder used for rocketry can use a slower burn rate since it accelerates the projectile for a much longer time—whereas powders for weapons such as flintlocks, cap-locks, or matchlocks need a higher burn rate to accelerate the projectile in a much shorter distance. Cannons usually used lower burn-rate powders, because most would burst with higher burn-rate powders. Besides black powder, there are other historically important types of gunpowder. "Brown gunpowder"

18304-543: Was adopted for the Lebel rifle chambered in 8×50mmR Lebel . It was passed through rollers to form paper-thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The resulting propellant , known as pyrocellulose , contains somewhat less nitrogen than guncotton does, and is less volatile. A particularly good feature of the propellant is that it will not detonate unless it is compressed, making it very safe to handle under normal conditions. Vieille's powder revolutionized

18447-529: Was already an accepted technique in 1839, and sodium nitrate-based blasting powder had been made in Peru for many years using the sodium nitrate mined at Tarapacá (now in Chile). Also, in 1846, two plants were built in south-west England to make blasting powder using this sodium nitrate. The idea may well have been brought from Peru by Cornish miners returning home after completing their contracts. Another suggestion

18590-591: Was coined in the late 19th century, primarily in the United States, to distinguish prior gunpowder formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders. Semi-smokeless powders featured bulk volume properties that approximated black powder, but had significantly reduced amounts of smoke and combustion products. Smokeless powder has different burning properties (pressure vs. time) and can generate higher pressures and work per gram. This can rupture older weapons designed for black powder. Smokeless powders ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to white. Most of

18733-606: Was described by Shihab al-Din Abu al-Abbas al-Qalqashandi between 1365 and 1376. The musket appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465. In 1598, Chinese writer Zhao Shizhen described Turkish muskets as being superior to European muskets. The Chinese military book Wu Pei Chih (1621) later described Turkish muskets that used a rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not known to have been used in European or Chinese firearms at

18876-598: Was developed at the Dynamit Nobel factory at Avigliana by its director Dr. Modesto Abelli (1859-1911) and patented in 1905. These "cold propellant" mixtures have reduced flash and flame temperature without sacrificing chamber pressure compared to single- and double-base propellants, albeit at the cost of more smoke. In practice, triple-base propellants are, due to their higher price, reserved mainly for high-velocity large caliber ammunition such as used in (naval) artillery and tank guns , which suffer from bore erosion

19019-521: Was filled with gunpowder, metal filings, "good mixtures", two rods, and a large rocket for propulsion. Judging by the illustration, it was evidently supposed to glide across the water. Fire lances were used in battles between the Muslims and Mongols in 1299 and 1303. Al-Hassan claims that in the Battle of Ain Jalut of 1260, the Mamluks used "the first cannon in history" against the Mongols, utilizing

19162-600: Was in service from 1895–1918 ( Lawrence of Arabia 's Arab Irregulars were known to have used them during the Arab Revolt of 1916–1918, along with any other firearms they could acquire) and it remained a Reserve Arm in places like India and New Zealand until well into World War II . Martini–Enfield rifles were manufactured/converted by: Martini–Enfield rifles were very well made and are more than capable of handling modern commercial .303 British ammunition, but, as with all second hand firearms, they should always be checked by

19305-476: Was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and was primarily produced in the provinces of Sichuan , Shanxi , and Shandong . There is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various medicinal combinations. A Chinese alchemical text dated 492 noted saltpeter burnt with a purple flame, providing a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, thus enabling alchemists to evaluate and compare purification techniques;

19448-535: Was last sold by Winchester in 1947. The development of smokeless powders, such as cordite , in the late 19th century created the need for a spark-sensitive priming charge , such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur content of traditional gunpowders caused corrosion problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the introduction of a range of sulfur-free gunpowders, of varying grain sizes. They typically contain 70.5 parts of saltpeter and 29.5 parts of charcoal. Like black powder, they were produced in different grain sizes. In

19591-574: Was manufactured at the Royal Gunpowder Factory at Waltham Abbey. It entered British service in 1891 as Cordite Mark 1. Its main composition was 58% nitroglycerine , 37% guncotton and 3% mineral jelly . A modified version, Cordite MD, entered service in 1901, with the guncotton percentage increased to 65% and nitroglycerine reduced to 30%. This change reduced the combustion temperature and hence erosion and barrel wear. Cordite's advantages over gunpowder were reduced maximum pressure in

19734-594: Was not self-sufficient in gunpowder, a Gunpowder Administration was established; to head it, the lawyer Antoine Lavoisier was appointed. Although from a bourgeois family, after his degree in law Lavoisier became wealthy from a company set up to collect taxes for the Crown; this allowed him to pursue experimental natural science as a hobby. Without access to cheap saltpeter (controlled by the British), for hundreds of years France had relied on saltpetremen with royal warrants,

19877-559: Was patented in the United States in 1891. The Germans adopted ballistite for naval use in 1898, calling it WPC/98. The Italians adopted it as filite , in cord instead of flake form—but, realising its drawbacks, changed to a formulation with nitroglycerine that they called solenite . In 1891 the Russians tasked the chemist Mendeleev with finding a suitable propellant. He created nitrocellulose gelatinised by ether-alcohol, which produced more nitrogen and more uniform colloidal structure than

20020-572: Was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large dung hills specifically piled for the purpose. The Dutch punishment for possession of non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation. Ownership and manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Dutch occupiers. According to colonel McKenzie quoted in Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles ', The History of Java (1817),

20163-603: Was the American Revolution . By careful testing and adjusting the proportions and grinding time, powder from mills such as at Essonne outside Paris became the best in the world by 1788, and inexpensive. Two British physicists, Andrew Noble and Frederick Abel , worked to improve the properties of gunpowder during the late 19th century. This formed the basis for the Noble-Abel gas equation for internal ballistics . The introduction of smokeless powder in

20306-623: Was the invention of guncotton , a nitrocellulose-based material, by German chemist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1846. He promoted its use as a blasting explosive and sold manufacturing rights to the Austrian Empire . Guncotton was more powerful than gunpowder, but at the same time was once again somewhat more unstable. John Taylor obtained an English patent for guncotton; and John Hall & Sons began manufacture in Faversham . English interest languished after an explosion destroyed

20449-434: Was then subjected to testing to determine the correct loading charge for the desired performance. Military quantities of old smokeless powder were sometimes reworked into new lots of propellants. Through the 1920s Fred Olsen worked at Picatinny Arsenal experimenting with ways to salvage tons of single-base cannon powder manufactured for World War I. Olsen was employed by Western Cartridge Company in 1929 and developed

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