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103-532: Aquaculture started to take off in New Zealand in the 1980s. It is dominated by mussels , oysters and salmon . In 2007, aquaculture generated about NZ$ 360 million in sales on an area of 7,700 hectares. $ 240 million was earned in exports. In 2006, the aquaculture industry in New Zealand developed a strategy aimed at achieving a sustainable annual billion NZ dollar business by 2025. In 2007,

206-469: A growing demand for high-quality protein, encouraged aquaculturists to domesticate other marine species. At the outset of modern aquaculture, many were optimistic that a " Blue Revolution " could take place in aquaculture, just as the Green Revolution of the 20th century had revolutionized agriculture. Although land animals had long been domesticated, most seafood species were still caught from

309-440: A herbal extract. They are then spiked in the brain . The heart beats for a time as the animal is bled from its sliced gills. Relaxing the salmon like this when it is killed produces firm, long-keeping flesh. Lack of disease in wild populations and low stocking densities used in the cages means that New Zealand salmon farmers do not use antibiotics and chemicals that are often needed elsewhere. The New Zealand industry has grown into

412-422: A large scale and are most often taken in the wild. In 2016, aquaculture was the source of 96.5 percent by volume of the total 31.2 million tonnes of wild-collected and cultivated aquatic plants combined. Global production of farmed aquatic plants, overwhelmingly dominated by seaweeds, grew in output volume from 13.5 million tonnes in 1995 to just over 30 million tonnes in 2016. Seaweed farming or kelp farming

515-629: A large toll in human lives. Most major human diseases originated in domesticated animals, including diseases such as smallpox and diphtheria , that like most infectious diseases, move to humans from animals. No human pathogens of comparable virulence have yet emerged from marine species. Biological control methods to manage parasites are already being used, such as cleaner fish (e.g. lumpsuckers and wrasse) to control sea lice populations in salmon farming. Models are being used to help with spatial planning and siting of fish farms in order to minimize impact. The decline in wild fish stocks has increased

618-488: A new location to the south to facilitate the spread of the word, but Nōpera Panakareao wrote a heartfelt letter to the CMS committee, pleading not to take away 'one of the two candlesticks'. In February 1841, about 500 Māori were present at a CMS service. In 1852 arguments developed between one chief and his tribe, however the impact of the missionaries meant that the old ways of settling disputes had passed. Richard Matthews,

721-440: A series of visits by Church Missionary Society (CMS) representatives including Samuel Marsden, and at different times, Joseph Matthews and William Gilbert Puckey . Puckey and Matthews had married two sisters, Matilda and Mary Ann Davis respectively, (daughters of Richard Davis, a lay missioner based at Waimate North ). They formed a tight band, initially living together in raupo huts, and then in houses they built. As Puckey and

824-405: A settlement of $ 97 million was made to Māori for Crown obligations for aquaculture space that was approved between 1992 and 2004. NIWA operates a Māori research and development unit, Te Kūwaha o Taihoro Nukurangi . The unit has a team of Māori scientists who undertake research and provide consultancy services, based particularly around iwi with environmental and commercial issues. In 2006,

927-511: A significant presence in the New Zealand aquaculture industry, and this is likely to increase over time as the requirements to allocate aquaculture space through the Māori Commercial Aquaculture Claims Settlement Act 2004 are met. However, inappropriate aquaculture locations and unsustainable practices have the potential to compromise values and resources important to coastal whānau , hapū and iwi . In 2008,

1030-514: A small urban area. It covers 8.48 km (3.27 sq mi) and had an estimated population of 6,380 as of June 2024, with a population density of 752 people per km . Kaitāia had a population of 5,955 in the 2023 New Zealand census , an increase of 87 people (1.5%) since the 2018 census , and an increase of 1,068 people (21.9%) since the 2013 census . There were 2,871 males, 3,069 females and 18 people of other genders in 1,962 dwellings. 2.0% of people identified as LGBTIQ+ . The median age

1133-418: A total output which is double that of the rest of the world put together. However, there are some historical issues with the accuracy of China's returns. In 2001, scientists Reg Watson and Daniel Pauly expressed concerns that China was over reporting its catch from wild fisheries in the 1990s. They said that made it appear that the global catch since 1988 was increasing annually by 300,000 tonnes, whereas it

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1236-577: Is 6,380 as of June 2024, which makes it the second-largest town in the Far North District, after Kerikeri . The name Kaitāia means 'ample food', kai being the Māori word for food. The Muriwhenua are a group of six northern Māori iwi occupying the northernmost part of the North Island surrounding Kaitaia. The Kaitaia Mission Station was established between 1833 and 1834 after

1339-409: Is an environmental source of food and commercial products that help to improve healthier habitats and are used to reconstruct the population of endangered aquatic species. Technology has increased the growth of fish in coastal marine waters and open oceans due to the increased demand for seafood. Aquaculture can be conducted in completely artificial facilities built on land (onshore aquaculture), as in

1442-543: Is an especially important economic activity in China. Between 1980 and 1997, the Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7%, jumping from 1.9 million tonnes to nearly 23 million tonnes. In 2005, China accounted for 70% of world production. Aquaculture is also currently one of the fastest-growing areas of food production in the U.S. About 90% of all U.S. shrimp consumption

1545-411: Is complex for such a small industry. A more comprehensive overview can be found here . Aquaculture is administered in New Zealand through labyrinth bureaucracies, with consequent diluted responsibilities. No single ministerial portfolio or government agency is responsible. As an example, in 2007 the government released a strategy on aquaculture. This strategy was endorsed by six government ministers with

1648-714: Is farmed and imported. In recent years, salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern Chile, especially in Puerto Montt , Chile's fastest-growing city. A United Nations report titled The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture released in May 2014 maintained fisheries and aquaculture support the livelihoods of some 60 million people in Asia and Africa. FAO estimates that in 2016, overall, women accounted for nearly 14 percent of all people directly engaged in

1751-758: Is farmed for agar ; the rest are eaten after limited processing. Seaweeds are different from mangroves and seagrasses , as they are photosynthetic algal organisms and are non-flowering. The largest seaweed-producing countries as of 2022 are China (58.62%) and Indonesia (28.6%); followed by South Korea (5.09%) and the Philippines (4.19%). Other notable producers include North Korea (1.6%), Japan (1.15%), Malaysia (0.53%), Zanzibar ( Tanzania , 0.5%), and Chile (0.3%). Seaweed farming has frequently been developed to improve economic conditions and to reduce fishing pressure. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reported that world production in 2019

1854-536: Is generally perceived as benign or even beneficial. Depending on the species and local conditions, bivalve molluscs are either grown on the beach, on longlines, or suspended from rafts and harvested by hand or by dredging. In May 2017 a Belgian consortium installed the first of two trial mussel farms on a wind farm in the North Sea . Abalone farming began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. Since

1957-494: Is highly probable that future developments in this field will rely on microorganisms, but greater funding and further research is needed to overcome the lack of knowledge in this field. Microalgae , also referred to as phytoplankton , microphytes , or planktonic algae , constitute the majority of cultivated algae . Macroalgae commonly known as seaweed also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and specific requirements, they are not easily cultivated on

2060-611: Is lower than in a monoculture over a short-term period. Kaitaia Kaitaia ( Māori : Kaitāia ) is a town in the Far North District of New Zealand , at the base of the Aupōuri Peninsula , about 160 km northwest of Whangārei . It is the last major settlement on State Highway 1 . Ahipara Bay , the southern end of Te Oneroa-a-Tōhē / Ninety Mile Beach , is 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) west. The main industries are forestry and tourism . The population

2163-498: Is not easily derived due to lack of data. Another recent issue following the banning in 2008 of organotins by the International Maritime Organization is the need to find environmentally friendly, but still effective, compounds with antifouling effects. Many new natural compounds are discovered every year, but producing them on a large enough scale for commercial purposes is almost impossible. It

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2266-539: Is not suitable for the rack systems which are still used by much of the industry. Pacific oysters on these racks are cultured from wild spat, most of which is gathered in the Kaipara Harbour . However, other systems are increasingly being used, including hanging longlines and plastic trays. The Cawthron Institute is the main provider of hatchery spat, and can selectively breed spat to specifications. Around 1900, different salmon were introduced as sport fish . Only

2369-508: Is one of the main centres in the Far North of New Zealand. It is near to popular tourist destinations such as Ahipara and is on State Highway 1 which leads up to Cape Reinga . The town's slogan is "Where journeys begin". An annual Snapper Surf Casting Competition is held in March, on Te Oneroa-a-Tōhē ( Ninety Mile Beach ) Snapper Bonanza Surf Casting Competition . The Aupouri Forest, to

2472-518: Is owned by the aquaculture industry, 4,010 ha is used to enhance the wild scallop fishery and belongs to the Challenger Scallop Enhancement Company, and 2,465 ha is an exposed site six kilometres offshore from Napier where trials are being undertaken by a private company to test the site's economic viability. In 2005 the aquaculture industry provided direct employment for about 2,500 full-time equivalents, mostly in

2575-447: Is potential for the industry to diversify into higher value species such as pāua , kingfish and crayfish . These species need special food supplies and are more expensive to farm, but they command higher prices. Other prospects which are being researched or trialled include Aquaculture Aquaculture can also be defined as the breeding, growing, and harvesting of fish and other aquatic plants, also known as farming in water. It

2678-405: Is probably the only country in the world where trout farming is illegal, despite commercial interest from companies already farming salmon. In 1976, the first salmon farm was established at Pupu Springs , Tasman . Salmon were raised in fresh water, growing to 25 centimetres over two years. The venture was originally aimed at ocean ranching, where juvenile salmon would be released into the sea with

2781-588: Is produced in Asia, in particular in China and Thailand. The other 25% is produced mainly in Latin America, where Brazil is the largest producer. Thailand is the largest exporter. Shrimp farming has changed from its traditional, small-scale form in Southeast Asia into a global industry. Technological advances have led to ever higher densities per unit area, and broodstock is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are penaeids (i.e., shrimp of

2884-462: Is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery. The abalone feed on seaweed that has grown naturally on the habitats, with the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also resulting in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, and Samson fish, among other species. Brad Adams, from the company, has emphasised the similarity to wild abalone and the difference from shore-based aquaculture. "We're not aquaculture, we're ranching, because once they're in

2987-665: Is the name given to techniques designed to boost the natural recruitment or survival of young animals or seaweed in the wild. In New Zealand, scallop enhancement has worked well in Tasman Bay / Te Tai-o-Aorere and Golden Bay . The New Zealand scallop is a large fan-shaped shellfish, flat on one side and convex on the other. It lives on the bottom of coastal waters from low tide level to over 90 metres deep, though typically from 10 to 25 metres deep. Scallop spat-collecting bags are suspended during summer in coastal areas with high natural scallop settlement. The scallop larvae settle out of

3090-492: Is the practice of cultivating and harvesting seaweed . In its simplest form farmers gather from natural beds, while at the other extreme farmers fully control the crop's life cycle . The seven most cultivated taxa are Eucheuma spp., Kappaphycus alvarezii , Gracilaria spp., Saccharina japonica , Undaria pinnatifida , Pyropia spp., and Sargassum fusiforme . Eucheuma and K. alvarezii are attractive for carrageenan (a gelling agent ); Gracilaria

3193-698: The Aquaculture Stewardship Council with the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative to manage the global standards and certification programs. After trials in 2012, a commercial "sea ranch" was set up in Flinders Bay , Western Australia, to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5000 (As of April 2016 ) separate concrete units called abitats (abalone habitats). The 900 kg abitats can host 400 abalone each. The reef

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3296-603: The Clutha and Waimakariri Rivers . In the 1990s, a unique form of freshwater salmon farming was developed in hydroelectric canals in the Mackenzie Basin . Young salmon are enclosed in pens in the Ōhau and Tekapo canals. The Tekapo site, fed by fast cold waters from the Southern Alps , is the highest salmon farm in the world, 677 metres above sea level. Before they are killed, cage salmon are anaesthetised with

3399-593: The Marlborough Sounds , and farming began there in the 1990s. Instead of using the North Island method of cultivating oysters on racks, Marlborough farmers used hanging longlines, a system developed in Australia. By 2006 there were over 230 oyster farms in New Zealand using over 900 hectares, and worth about $ 32 million in annual sales. About $ 18 million were exports. Hatchery reared seed

3502-443: The Māori language . Pompallier School is a Catholic full primary (years 1–8) school with a roll of 145. Kaitaia Abundant Life School was a Christian composite school (years 1–13). It was established in 1988 as a private primary school, and extended to secondary students in 1992. It became a state integrated school in 1996. The school closed and exited the state system at the end of Term 2, 2023. The school’s Trust believed that it

3605-406: The ecosystem . Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several niches , as extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond. A working IMTA system can result in greater total production based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health , even if the production of individual species

3708-511: The family Penaeidae ), and just two species of shrimp, the Pacific white shrimp and the giant tiger prawn , account for about 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial monocultures are very susceptible to disease, which has decimated shrimp populations across entire regions. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both nongovernmental organizations and consumer countries led to changes in

3811-419: The king salmon (Chinook) adapted to the environment. For decades, the development of salmon and trout aquaculture in New Zealand was opposed by recreational fishers , on the grounds that disease would spread from fish farms into recreational fisheries, and that wild fish would be poached if they could be sold. In 1973 the government compromised by making trout farms illegal, but salmon farms legal. New Zealand

3914-434: The rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking , feeding , protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated." The reported output from global aquaculture operations in 2019 was over 120 million tonnes valued at US$ 274 billion, by 2022, it had risen to 130.9 million tonnes, valued at USD 312.8 billion. However, there are issues with

4017-502: The 1834 Anglican mission, which had run its own mission school. Kaitaia Intermediate separated from Kaitaia Primary in 1968. Kaitāia College started as the Secondary Department of Kaitaia School, establishing its own site in the 1930s and becoming a separate school in 1951. Te Kura Kaupapa Māori o Pukemiro is a full primary (years 1–8) school with a roll of 153. It is a Kura Kaupapa Māori school which teaches fully in

4120-553: The 1960s, commercial farmers grew rock oysters on sticks coated with cement, and laid in racks in the lower intertidal regions of harbours and inlets around the northern North Island. Then in 1970 another oyster started outgrowing the native rock oyster. This newcomer was the Pacific oyster , which had probably been introduced into New Zealand waters in the 1950s from a Japanese vessel hull or in their ballast water. At first, farmers tried to remove it from their collecting sticks, but year by year Pacific oyster spat increased, out-competing

4223-432: The 1980s and 1990s. In 2012, the total world production of fisheries was 158 million tonnes , of which aquaculture contributed 66.6 million tonnes, about 42%. The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture has been sustained and rapid, averaging about 8% per year for over 30 years, while the take from wild fisheries has been essentially flat for the last decade. The aquaculture market reached $ 86 billion in 2009. Aquaculture

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4326-589: The 1980s, recovered with re-seeding to a level where 747 tonnes were harvested in 2004. Marine farmers usually look for sheltered and unpolluted waters rich in nutrients. Often these areas are also desirable for other purposes. In the late 1990s, demand for coastal aquaculture space upsurged, increasing fivefold. Aquaculture consents developed haphazardly, with regional councils unsure about how marine farms might impact coastal environments. By 2001, some councils were inundated with marine farm applications, and were operating with inadequate guidelines for sustainably managing

4429-940: The Agriculture Ministry's Bureau of Fisheries, as saying that China's figures were "basically correct". However, the FAO accepted there were issues with the reliability of China's statistical returns, and for a period treated data from China, including the aquaculture data, apart from the rest of the world. Mariculture is the cultivation of marine organisms in seawater , variously in sheltered coastal waters ("inshore"), open ocean ("offshore"), and on land ("onshore"). Farmed species include algae (from microalgae (such as phytoplankton ) to macroalgae (such as seaweed ); shellfish (such as shrimp ), lobster , oysters ), and clams , and marine finfish . Channel catfish ( Ictalurus punctatus ), hard clams ( Mercenaria mercenaria ) and Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar ) are prominent in

4532-476: The Caribbean (2%). The contribution of aquaculture to the global production of capture fisheries and aquaculture combined has risen continuously, reaching 46.8 percent in 2016, up from 25.7 percent in 2000. With 5.8 percent annual growth rate during the period 2001–2016, aquaculture continues to grow faster than other major food production sectors, but it no longer has the high annual growth rates experienced in

4635-555: The New Zealand aquaculture industry published The New Zealand Aquaculture Strategy , setting itself an annual sales target of one billion NZ dollars by 2025. The strategy sets out ten areas of activity needed to achieve this target. The New Zealand Aquaculture Council has introduced a levy on aquaculture producers so this strategy can be implemented. In 2007, the New Zealand government responded to this industry initiative by releasing an aquaculture development strategy highlighting existing actions and proposing new initiatives. In addition,

4738-644: The North of Kaitaia, provides pine logs which are processed at the Juken Nissho Mill in Kaitaia. Extraction of ancient swamp Kauri ( Agathis australis ), is a contentious industry. Kaitaia lies within the Awanui River catchment. The area supports dairy and dry stock farming, predominantly sheep and beef. Further north of Kaitaia, the avocado industry flourishes, with orchards dispersed throughout

4841-412: The U.S. mariculture. Mariculture may consist of raising the organisms on or in artificial enclosures such as in floating netted enclosures for salmon, and on racks or in floating cages for oysters. In the case of enclosed salmon, they are fed by the operators; oysters on racks filter feed on naturally available food. Abalone have been farmed on an artificial reef consuming seaweed which grows naturally on

4944-561: The annual sales of the industry. These funds are mostly delivered through a competitive bidding process, organised and controlled by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technology . In pre-European times, the indigenous Māori of New Zealand undertook rudimentary aquaculture activities, such as placing suitable rocks into the intertidal settlement zones of oyster larvae. They were also thought to have transplanted abalone and other shellfish between different areas. Māori currently have

5047-509: The brother of Rev. Joseph Matthews, arrived in the Bay of Islands in December 1835 and for a time, joined his brother in Kaitaia. Richard Matthews had been a lay missionary on the second voyage of HMS Beagle with Charles Darwin . Richard Matthews served the CMS as a lay catechist at Kaitaia. In 1838 he married Johanna Blomfield, the sister of Mrs Martha Blomfield Clarke, whose husband George

5150-434: The case of fish tank , ponds , aquaponics or raceways , where the living conditions rely on human control such as water quality (oxygen), feed, temperature. Alternatively, they can be conducted on well-sheltered shallow waters nearshore of a body of water (inshore aquaculture), where the cultivated species are subjected to relatively more naturalistic environments; or on fenced/enclosed sections of open water away from

5253-415: The census question. Of those at least 15 years old, 330 (7.4%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, 2,478 (55.7%) had a post-high school certificate or diploma, and 1,566 (35.2%) people exclusively held high school qualifications. The median income was $ 28,500, compared with $ 41,500 nationally. 105 people (2.4%) earned over $ 100,000 compared to 12.1% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15

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5356-566: The coast. As the Ministry for the Environment put it: "Attempts to minimise local or cumulative environmental effects resulted in bottlenecks, delays and high costs in processing applications for new marine farms, local moratoria, submitter fatigue and poor environmental outcomes. Marine farmers, local communities, and the government wanted change." In 2002, the government stopped issuing consents for more new marine farms while they reformed

5459-761: The coast. In New Zealand, about 70 percent of marine aquaculture occurs in the top of the South Island. In the North Island, the Firth of Thames is productive. There are three main species in the New Zealand aquaculture industry: the green-lipped mussel , the Pacific oyster and king salmon . In 2006 these three species generated $ 357 million in sales. Mussel accounted for 63 percent of this value, Pacific oysters 9 percent and king salmon 28 percent. Over two-thirds of New Zealand's aquaculture product comes from mussels and oysters. These shellfish are cultivated in two distinct stages; first spat needs to be collected, then

5562-548: The cultivation of ornamental fish . Particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture , both of which integrate fish farming and aquatic plant farming. The FAO describes aquaculture as one of the industries most directly affected by climate change and its impacts. Some forms of aquaculture have negative impacts on the environment, such as through nutrient pollution or disease transfer to wild populations. Harvest stagnation in wild fisheries and overexploitation of popular marine species, combined with

5665-439: The decade to 2007. Given the long-term importance of agriculture, to date, only 0.08% of known land plant species and 0.0002% of known land animal species have been domesticated, compared with 0.17% of known marine plant species and 0.13% of known marine animal species. Domestication typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Domesticating aquatic species involves fewer risks to humans than do land animals, which took

5768-446: The demand for farmed fish. However, finding alternative sources of protein and oil for fish feed is necessary so the aquaculture industry can grow sustainably; otherwise, it represents a great risk for the over-exploitation of forage fish. Aquaculture production now exceeds capture fishery production and together the relative GDP contribution has ranged from 0.01 to 10%. Singling out aquaculture's relative contribution to GDP, however,

5871-709: The developmental lifecycle of the main species, the giant river prawn . The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding crayfish and crabs ) in 2007 was about 460,000 tonnes , exceeding 1.86 billion dollars. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tonnes of Chinese river crab . In addition astaciculture is the freshwater farming of crayfish (mostly in the US, Australia, and Europe). Aquacultured shellfish include various oyster , mussel , and clam species. These bivalves are filter and/or deposit feeders, which rely on ambient primary production rather than inputs of fish or other feed. As such, shellfish aquaculture

5974-682: The expectation that some would return as adults. But few did return, so the Pupu Springs facility was converted to a hatchery , supplying stock to sea farms. In 1983, the first sea-cage salmon farm was established in Big Glory Bay, Stewart Island . It was followed by farms in the Marlborough Sounds and at Akaroa Harbour on Banks Peninsula . These areas accounted for over 90 percent of the 8,500 tonnes of salmon produced in 2001. Today, New Zealand accounts for over half of

6077-416: The fisheries and aquaculture primary sector. In 2021, global fish production reached 182 million tonnes, with approximately equal amounts coming from capture (91.2 million tonnes) and aquaculture (90.9 million tonnes). Aquaculture has experienced rapid growth in recent decades, increasing almost sevenfold from 1990 to 2021. China overwhelmingly dominates the world in reported aquaculture output, reporting

6180-512: The following portfolios: fisheries, environment, conservation, local government, Māori affairs, industry and regional development. Further, there were five government departments directly involved in the preparation of the strategy. As another example, the access to marine and freshwater aquaculture sites are under the control of 17 regional local government agencies with yet more oversight by various central government agencies. Despite many further consultations and incentives, no new aquaculture space

6283-519: The government has offered additional funding around five key objectives, with the main focus on improving the implementation of the new 2004 regulations. At the end of 2008 there was a change in government, which announced that the aquaculture reforms will be overhauled, but reaffirmed the government commitment to the industry billion dollar target. The New Zealand industry currently relies on low-value filter-feeding shellfish (mussels and oysters) which are fast growing and relatively easy to culture. There

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6386-406: The government reacted by offering more support to the growing industry. Aquaculture is the general term given to the cultivation of any fresh or saltwater plant or animal. It takes place in New Zealand in coastal marine areas ( mariculture ) and in inland tanks or enclosures. Aquaculture in New Zealand currently (2008) occupies 14,188 ha. Of that area, 7,713 ha is in established growing areas and

6489-464: The immediate area. Wine is a growing commodity. One of the largest vineyards in the area is the Karikari Estate. Mānuka honey is another industry experiencing growth. Kaitaia Primary School, Kaitaia Intermediate and Kaitāia College are the main primary, intermediate and secondary schools. The rolls are 302, 196, and 810, respectively. Kaitaia Primary opened in 1875 on the site of

6592-451: The incorporation of species from different trophic or nutritional levels in the same system. This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic polyculture , which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few synergistic benefits, which could potentially lead to significant shifts in

6695-487: The industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulations. In 1999, governments, industry representatives, and environmental organizations initiated a program aimed at developing and promoting more sustainable farming practices through the Seafood Watch program. Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, including many problems with, marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by

6798-415: The industry. Sea ranching involves raising fish in a hatchery for a brief time and then releasing them into marine waters for further development, whereupon the fish are recaptured when they have matured. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply thereafter. Global production reached more than 1.6 million tonnes in 2003, worth about US$ 9 billion. About 75% of farmed shrimp

6901-575: The largest producers of farmed king salmon in the world, accounting for about half of world production. The New Zealand King Salmon Company , dominates the production of king salmon in New Zealand. The company has its own selective breeding programmes integrated with quality control and production. Other salmon producers rely on stock from hatcheries where selective breeding is less well developed. Other species which have potential, but are currently small-scale or are still in research or pre-commercial stages, are discussed under Prospects below. Enhancement

7004-438: The legislation. The consents had operated under a system overseen by both the Ministry of Fisheries and the regional councils. The reforms aimed to streamline these applications for both freshwater and marine farms. Industry farmers objected to the moratorium, on the grounds that delaying expansion and diversification could not be in the interest of the industry. Māori groups considered they were especially affected since they were

7107-619: The main applicants for coastal farms. This took three years, and in early 2005, Parliament passed the Aquaculture Reform Act 2004, which introduced the new legislation. The act amends five existing acts to cope with the new environmental demands, and creates two new acts, the Māori Commercial Aquaculture Claims Settlement Act 2004 and the Aquaculture Reform (Repeals and Transitional Provisions) Act 2004. The legislation and administration of aquaculture in New Zealand

7210-484: The market. In 2009, researchers in Australia managed for the first time to coax southern bluefin tuna to breed in landlocked tanks. Southern bluefin tuna are also caught in the wild and fattened in grow-out sea cages in southern Spencer Gulf , South Australia . A similar process is used in the salmon-farming section of this industry; juveniles are taken from hatcheries and a variety of methods are used to aid them in their maturation. For example, as stated above, some of

7313-550: The mid-1990s, this industry has become increasingly successful. Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to the extent that farmed abalone now supplies most abalone meat. Sustainably farmed molluscs can be certified by Seafood Watch and other organizations, including the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). WWF initiated the "Aquaculture Dialogues" in 2004 to develop measurable and performance-based standards for responsibly farmed seafood. In 2009, WWF co-founded

7416-513: The months of May – September. InterCity operates a daily bus service to and from Auckland via Kerikeri. Community Business & Environment Centre (CBEC) runs a service called Busabout to Ahipara, Mangonui and Pukenui. Kaitaia Airport has services from Auckland and is the only airport in the upper Far North District. Air New Zealand discontinued their services in April 2015. Barrier Air has since taken over services to Auckland. Kaitaia

7519-434: The most important fish species in the industry, salmon, can be grown using a cage system. This is done by having netted cages, preferably in open water that has a strong flow, and feeding the salmon a special food mixture that aids their growth. This process allows for year-round growth of the fish, thus a higher harvest during the correct seasons. An additional method, known sometimes as sea ranching, has also been used within

7622-465: The native rock oyster. Eventually commercial growers began to cultivate the Pacific oyster, and by the mid-1970s, it had become the main farm-raised oyster. Pacific oysters have well-established international markets, grow three times faster than native rock oysters, reach a larger size, have several spawnings each year and produce more consistent quantities of spat. In 1977 Pacific oysters appeared in

7725-657: The needs of companies involved in aquaculture. At the tertiary level, the Auckland University of Technology offers an undergraduate degree in aquaculture. Other tertiary training centres offering aquaculture courses include the Bay of Plenty Polytechnic , the Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology , and the Mahurangi Technical Institute . Government funding for aquaculture research is about two percent of

7828-430: The northern half of the building to burn. The building, prior to the blaze, was used as a residential dwelling. A few months later in March 2021, the building was set on fire again, causing the entire building to set ablaze. Alarms were raised at around 2:30pm. Police suspected that the blaze was 'deliberately lit'. The building was demolished upon the closing of the property. Statistics New Zealand describes Kaitāia as

7931-441: The plankton onto the fine feathery surface of the plastic mesh bags. The larvae are allowed to grow to a suitable size and are then released onto known natural scallop beds at densities of about six per square metre of sea floor. There, they are later harvested on a rotational basis by dredges . This technique has resulted in a marked increase and stabilising of the available annual catch. The Tasman scallop fishery, near collapse in

8034-403: The processing sector. A similar amount of indirect employment resulted from flow-on effects. The aquaculture industry is important for some coastal areas around New Zealand where there is limited employment. This applies particularly to some Māori communities with traditional links to coastal settlements. Marine aquaculture, and mariculture , occurs in the sea, generally in sheltered bays along

8137-571: The reef units. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the byproducts (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs ( fertilizers , food ) for another. Fed aquaculture (for example, fish , shrimp ) is combined with inorganic extractive and organic extractive (for example, shellfish ) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices). "Multi-trophic" refers to

8240-488: The reliability of the reported figures. Further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several kilograms of wild fish are used to produce one kilogram of a piscivorous fish like salmon . Plant and insect-based feeds are also being developed to help reduce wild fish been used for aquaculture feed. Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming , shrimp farming , oyster farming , mariculture, pisciculture , algaculture (such as seaweed farming ), and

8343-581: The reported output from global aquaculture operations was over 120 million tonnes valued at US$ 274 billion and by 2022 it had reached 130.9 million tonnes, valued at USD 312.8 billion. For the first time, aquaculture surpassed capture fisheries in aquatic animal production with 94.4 million tonnes, representing 51 percent of the world total and a record 57 percent of the production destined for human consumption. In 2022 most aquaculture workers were in Asia (95%), followed by Africa (3%) and Latin America and

8446-517: The rest of their life. They are fed fishmeal pellets high in protein and oil. Most of this fishmeal is imported from Australia. The salmon are harvested when they are about two years old, weighing 2.5 to 4 kilograms. Sea cages are located in the Marlborough Sounds , Akaroa Harbour and Stewart Island . Farming in freshwater for king salmon uses net cages placed in rivers, using techniques similar to those used for sea-farmed salmon. Freshwater raceways are located in several Canterbury rivers such as

8549-836: The ropes were allowed to reseed naturally, after harvest, from the spat already present in coastal waters. However, this method was unreliable. In 1974 a marine scientist discovered mussel spat encrusted on drift kelp on Ninety Mile Beach . Locals collected the seaweed and air freighted it to mussel farmers. Kaitaia spat, as it became known, is now the prime source of seed mussels. There are some experimental hatcheries. Improved techniques have led to rapid production increases, and bulk handling methods have been introduced to meet growing demand for export to more than 60 countries. By 2006 there were over 900 mussel farms in New Zealand covering about 6500 hectares, and worth about $ 224 million in annual sales. About $ 180 million were exports, usually sold as frozen mussels in half shells, patented with

8652-529: The shore (offshore aquaculture), where the species are either cultured in cages, racks or bags and are exposed to more diverse natural conditions such as water currents (such as ocean currents ), diel vertical migration and nutrient cycles . According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture "is understood to mean the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming implies some form of intervention in

8755-592: The sisters were fluent in Māori, (Puckey having arrived in New Zealand in 1819 with his father, William Puckey, and the Davis family in 1823), they spoke Māori when together, to help Joseph Matthews pick up the language. Both families grew and intermarried, forming the basis of the early Pākehā settler community. At one point, the Church Missionary Society decided that either Puckey or Matthews should move to

8858-458: The spat is grown in a grow-out facility. Until the early 1960s, mussels were harvested by hand from intertidal rocks. Dredging was then introduced, and within a few years the mussel beds in Tasman Bay / Te Tai-o-Aorere and the Hauraki Gulf were dredged clean. In the late 1960s, following this collapse, the aquaculture of the New Zealand mussel began. The endemic green lipped mussel

8961-434: The stockings, anchoring themselves to the ropes with their strong byssal threads (beards). The farms are usually located in sheltered or semi-sheltered areas where there is sufficient depth of water at low tide to keep the longline droppers off the bottom. Recent research has been investigating offshore mussel farming in exposed areas several kilometres from shore, such as farms offshore from Napier and Ōpōtiki . Initially

9064-452: The total and 53 percent if non-food uses (including reduction to fishmeal and fish oil) are excluded. With capture fishery production relatively static since the late 1980s, aquaculture has been responsible for the continuing growth in the supply of fish for human consumption. Global aquaculture production (including aquatic plants) in 2016 was 110.2 million tonnes, with the first-sale value estimated at US$ 244 billion. Three years later, in 2019

9167-448: The trade name NZ Greenshell Mussels. There are two types of wild oysters in New Zealand, Bluff oysters and rock oysters . Both have been commercially harvested since the mid-19th century. Bluff oysters have never been cultivated, but various attempts were made to cultivate the rock oyster. Rock oysters are found naturally in the intertidal zone in the north of the North Island, and were subject to early cultivation experiments. During

9270-595: The water they look after themselves." Other groups include aquatic reptiles, amphibians, and miscellaneous invertebrates, such as echinoderms and jellyfish . They are separately graphed at the top right of this section, since they do not contribute enough volume to show clearly on the main graph. Commercially harvested echinoderms include sea cucumbers and sea urchins . In China, sea cucumbers are farmed in artificial ponds as large as 400 hectares (1,000 acres). Global fish production peaked at about 171 million tonnes in 2016, with aquaculture representing 47 percent of

9373-527: The wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery . Worldwide, the most important fish species used in fish farming are, in order, carp , salmon , tilapia , and catfish . In the Mediterranean, young bluefin tuna are netted at sea and towed slowly towards the shore. They are then interned in offshore pens (sometimes made from floating HDPE pipe) where they are further grown for

9476-411: The wild. Concerned about the impact of growing demand for seafood on the world's oceans, prominent ocean explorer Jacques Cousteau wrote in 1973: "With earth's burgeoning human populations to feed, we must turn to the sea with new understanding and new technology." About 430 (97%) of the species cultured as of 2007 were domesticated during the 20th and 21st centuries, of which an estimated 106 came in

9579-446: The world production of king salmon (7,400 tonnes in 2005). Farming in the sea ( mariculture ) for king salmon is sometimes called sea-cage ranching. Sea-cage ranching takes place in large floating net cages, about 25 metres across and 15 metres deep, moored to the sea floor in clean, fast-flowing coastal waters. Smolt (young fish) from freshwater hatcheries are transferred to cages containing several thousand salmon, and remain there for

9682-560: Was 33.0 years (compared with 38.1 years nationally). There were 1,506 people (25.3%) aged under 15 years, 1,239 (20.8%) aged 15 to 29, 2,250 (37.8%) aged 30 to 64, and 960 (16.1%) aged 65 or older. People could identify as more than one ethnicity. The results were 48.2% European ( Pākehā ); 70.4% Māori ; 9.3% Pasifika ; 4.1% Asian ; 0.4% Middle Eastern, Latin American and African New Zealanders (MELAA); and 1.4% other, which includes people giving their ethnicity as "New Zealander". English

9785-551: Was a CMS missionary at Te Waimate mission . In 1840 Richard and Johanna Matthews helped set up a missionary station at Whanganui . There were plans to extend the Okaihau Branch railway to Kaitaia and construction was started in the 1920s, but with the line nearly complete to Rangiahua , a review in 1936 determined that the line would not be viable and construction was abandoned. The line terminated in Okaihau until it

9888-423: Was closed on 1 November 1987. D 221, a steam tank locomotive , has been on static display at Centennial Park since 1967. There are five marae located within 10kms of Kaitāia In October 2020, a fire occurred at the former Kaitaia Bowling Club on Matthews Avenue. Alarms were raised at 6:01am on Friday. The fire was caused by an electrical fault that had sparked in the kitchen area on the upper floor, causing

9991-618: Was created under the new legislation for another four years. This coincided with a change in government at the end of 2008, which announced that the aquaculture reforms are to be overhauled. In recent years, skill levels in the New Zealand aquaculture industry has considerably improved. This has been largely due to Seafood Industry Training Organization (SITO), an integral part of the seafood industry. SITO have developed tailored aquaculture training programmes based on their prior experience with industry-based training for wild fisheries. They now offer nationally recognised training programmes based on

10094-525: Was no longer possible to offer an education determined by their beliefs due to government and Ministry legislation, policy, and curriculum initiatives. These include: Gender neutral requirements, the Conversion Practices Prohibition Legislation Act 2022 , and the curriculum’s requirements around relationship and sexuality guidelines. Oturu School is a primary school to the north east serving years 1–8, with

10197-454: Was over 35 million tonnes. North America produced some 23,000 tonnes of wet seaweed. Alaska, Maine, France, and Norway each more than doubled their seaweed production since 2018 . As of 2019, seaweed represented 30% of marine aquaculture. The farming of fish is the most common form of aquaculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks, fish ponds , or ocean enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into

10300-432: Was really shrinking annually by 350,000 tonnes. Watson and Pauly suggested this may have been related to Chinese policies where state entities that monitored the economy were also tasked with increasing output. Also, until more recently, the promotion of Chinese officials was based on production increases from their own areas. China disputed this claim. The official Xinhua News Agency quoted Yang Jian, director general of

10403-556: Was spoken by 95.6%, Māori language by 22.1%, Samoan by 0.9% and other languages by 4.2%. No language could be spoken by 2.4% (e.g. too young to talk). New Zealand Sign Language was known by 0.7%. The percentage of people born overseas was 9.2, compared with 28.8% nationally. Religious affiliations were 38.3% Christian , 0.7% Hindu , 0.1% Islam , 10.6% Māori religious beliefs , 0.3% Buddhist , 0.3% New Age , 0.1% Jewish , and 0.7% other religions. People who answered that they had no religion were 41.2%, and 8.6% of people did not answer

10506-485: Was that 1,746 (39.2%) people were employed full-time, 471 (10.6%) were part-time, and 372 (8.4%) were unemployed. Kaitaia has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfbl ) according to the Trewartha climate classification system or an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) according to Köppen system . Summers are usually warm, while winters are usually wet and mild. Precipitation is heavy year round in the form of rain, which peaks during

10609-562: Was used to trial growing mussel spat (young mussels) on ropes suspended from rafts. The Hauraki Gulf and the Marlborough Sounds provided sheltered environments, with clean water rich in plankton . The cultured mussels were ready for harvest after 12 to 18 months, and first went on sale in 1971. More growers entered the industry. The labour-intensive raft method was replaced with a modified Japanese longline system. Biodegradable stockings were packed with spat and tied to parallel rows of looped ropes, supported by buoys . Young mussels grow through

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