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75-715: The city serves as the centre of economic activity in Chad. Meat , fish and cotton processing are the chief industries, and it is a regional market for livestock , salt , dates , and grains . It is a port city located at the confluence of the Logone River with the Chari River , forming a transborder agglomeration with the city of Kousséri (in Cameroon ), capital of the Department of Logone-et-Chari , which

150-544: A branch there. On 6 April 1973, President François Tombalbaye changed its name to N'Djamena (taken from the Arabic name of a nearby village, Niǧāmīnā , meaning "place of rest") as part of his authenticité program of Africanization . The city was occupied by Libya during the 1980–81 Libyan intervention as part of the Chadian–Libyan conflict , and the associated Transitional Government of National Unity . The city

225-658: A broad one. Static magnetic fields , for reasons still unknown, retard animal development. The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition , i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition. The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants , which may digest cellulose , are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed

300-673: A maximum amount of 60% of all net income. Attractions in the city include the Chad National Museum , the Al-Mouna Cultural Center, Our Lady of Peace Cathedral , and several mosques . Within the Chad National Museum, one can view the partial skull of a Sahelanthropus , called by locals as "Toumaï". This skull was discovered in the northern part of Chad and is considered to be from one of the earliest human ancestors. Views of sunset across

375-587: A predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route . Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen , and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from

450-895: A result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate , found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism . Some man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard as they bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers. Practices such as confinement in factory farming have generated concerns for animal welfare . Animals have abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking . Invasive procedures such as beak trimming , castration , and ear notching have similarly been questioned. Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when broiler chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly. Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from

525-513: A short wet season and a lengthy dry season . Despite the fact that the city receives on average approximately 510 mm (20 in) of rainfall annually, due to the area's very high evapotranspiration , N'Djamena still falls into the semi-arid climate category. The wet season lasts from June to September, with the heaviest rain occurring in August. The dry season essentially covers the remaining eight months. Based on annual temperatures, N'Djamena

600-445: A similar fashion in 1990 by a former general of his, Idriss Déby . The city had only 9,976 inhabitants in 1937, but a decade later, in 1947, the population had almost doubled to 18,435. In 1968, after independence, the population reached 126,483. In 1993, it surpassed half a million with 529,555. A good deal of this growth has been due to refugees fleeing into N'Djamena for security, although many people fled N'Djamena, also depending on

675-545: A university. N'Djamena has two universities: the University of N'Djamena with French as the language of instruction, built in 1971; and King Faisal University - Chad with Arabic as the language of instruction, built in 1991. Secondary schools include the long established Lycée Félix Éboué and Lycée technique commercial, the Lycée Montaigne de N'Djamena (French international school). Secondary school within Chad

750-497: Is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef actually contained horse meat . Meat can be cooked in many ways, including braising , broiling , frying , grilling , and roasting . Meat can be cured by smoking , which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering wood. Other methods of curing include pickling , salting , and air-drying. Some recipes call for raw meat; steak tartare

825-404: Is anticipated. Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle)

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900-417: Is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat. The fatty deposits near the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked, improve its flavor, and make the meat seem juicier. Fat around meat further contains cholesterol . The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet. Biomass of mammals on Earth Upon reaching

975-411: Is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted. The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country. Horses are commonly eaten in countries such as France, Italy, Germany and Japan. Horses and other large mammals such as reindeer were hunted during

1050-445: Is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen , the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action. In plant feed, environmental factors influence

1125-564: Is important to economies and cultures around the world. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete , meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means skeletal muscle with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include offal , other edible organs such as liver and kidney . The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to

1200-516: Is linked to East Africa by the (largely unpaved) N'Djamena–Djibouti Highway . The Tripoli-Cape Town Highway also passes through N'Djamena, making it a key Central African location in the Trans-African Highway network . N'Djamena is linked by road bridge to Kousséri in Cameroon . N'Djamena International Airport Hassan Djamous ( IATA code NDJ) is located on the outskirts of the city. Historically, N'Djamena's main link to

1275-877: Is made from minced raw beef. Pâtés are made with ground meat and fat, often including liver . Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume. Toxic compounds including heavy metals , mycotoxins , pesticide residues, dioxins , polychlorinated biphenyl can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in

1350-553: Is mandatory, however only 68% of students over the age of 12 attend school. Of that 68%, 70% of these students attend school within N'Djamena. Many of the students in international schools are children of executives, diplomats, and non-governmental organization employees. Among the places of worship , they are predominantly Muslim mosques . There are also Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of N'Djaména ( Catholic Church ), Evangelical Church of Chad, Christian Assemblies in Chad ( Plymouth Brethren ). N'Djamena

1425-567: Is now part of the Union of Forces for Democracy and Development . UFDC was founded between 26–28 December 2005 in Modeina in eastern Chad. FUC's " president " is Mahamat Nour Abdelkerim , the former leader of the Rally for Democracy and Liberty rebel group, "first vice president " Hassan Salleh Algadam, "second vice president" Abakar Tollimi, and "secretary-general" Abdelwahit About . On 18 December

1500-519: Is on the west bank of both rivers. In 2014, it had 1,093,492 inhabitants. N'Djamena (from the Arabic name for the village of Nijamina, "the city where one finds rest") was founded as Fort-Lamy by French commander Émile Gentil on 29 May 1900, and named after Amédée-François Lamy , an army officer who had been killed in the Battle of Kousséri about a month earlier. It was a major trading city and became

1575-514: Is one of the hottest major cities on the planet. In only one month of the year (August) do average monthly high temperatures fail to cross the 32 °C (90 °F) mark. The city's highest temperatures are usually seen between March and May, just before the onset of the heavier rains. N'Djamena's primary economic source is agricultural work. About 80% of the population within N'Djamena works within farming-based industries, including cultivation of crops and growing livestock . The economy in N'Djamena

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1650-501: Is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of

1725-420: Is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor , but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidizes , which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis contributes to conditioning: hypoxanthine , a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of

1800-622: Is the home of the National Assembly of Chad , along with many political organisations and parties, and every national ministry. The Supreme Court and Court of Appeal are also in N'Djamena, along with every major embassy in Chad, including the French and US embassies. It is sometimes considered within the region of Chari-Baguirmi , although separate. The city is the eastern terminus of the Trans-Sahelian Highway , and

1875-594: Is therefore almost totally reliant on good weather, making the economy struggle in years with low rainfall. N'Djamena receives financial aid from the World Bank , as well as the African Development Bank . There is a high demand for skilled laborers within N'Djamena to work for oil and gas sectors, as well as laborers for foreign non-governmental organizations , medical services , and English teaching. Residents of N'Djamena are liable to pay tax up to

1950-450: Is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. The fat content of meat varies widely with the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison . Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness

2025-805: The Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus , with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus". Complete cooking and

2100-649: The breeding of animals to improve meat production. In the postwar period , governments gave farmers guaranteed prices to increase animal production. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution. In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs. Intensive animal farming became globalized in

2175-594: The confluence of the Chari and Logone rivers. While primarily an administrative centre, the city includes the Nassara Strip commercial centre and residential areas, such as Mbololo , Chagoua , Paris Congo and Moursal . The main commercial avenue of the city is the Avenue Charles de Gaulle . N'Djamena is Africa's most polluted city. N'Djamena has a hot semi-arid climate ( Köppen BSh ) with

2250-563: The Chari River can also be spectacular. N’Djamena was named Capital of Islamic Culture in 2009. In N'Djamena, education can be thought of as a luxury even though it is compulsory and free and has been since Chad's independence in 1960. Not more than forty percent of elementary age children in Chad have an opportunity to attend classes and with N'Djamena's poor state stability it is even harder for children to get an education. After progressing through elementary school, some students go on to

2325-617: The FUC: On 24 December 2006, Chad's President Idriss Deby Itno and rebel leader Mahamat Nour Abdelkerim signed a peace accord ending hostilities between the Chadian government and the United Front for Democratic Change. A substantial portion of the forces commanded by Abdelkerim were scheduled to be integrated into the Chadian national army over the subsequent three months, but the remaining rebel factions continued to fight on against

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2400-530: The Libyans, whose tanks overwhelmed Habré's defenses in the capital. Following differences between Goukouni and Muammar Gaddafi and international disapproval of Libyan intervention, the Libyan troops left the capital and Chad in 1981. This opened the door to Habré, who marched on N'Djamena, occupying the city with little resistance in 1982 and installing himself as the new president. He was eventually dislodged in

2475-929: The National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 100 °C (212 °F) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%. Nitrosamines , present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic. Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by

2550-655: The RDL and another allied rebel group, Platform for Change, Unity and Democracy , attacked the city of Adré . The attack was repulsed by the Chadian military , and the Chadian government accused the Sudanese government of supporting the rebels, which Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir denies. Chad declared a "state of belligerance" with Sudan on 23 December 2005, resulting in the Chad-Sudan Conflict . The result

2625-546: The animal genome . To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped . Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered. Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits

2700-662: The animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" ( esters of glycerol with fatty acids ), or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol . Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen , reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as

2775-413: The animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality. Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into

2850-471: The availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients , a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, where the soil contains limited phosphate , cattle are fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was found to be

2925-436: The best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females. Growth hormones , particularly anabolic agents such as steroids , are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy , an international trade dispute. It may decrease

3000-551: The body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer. The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that

3075-480: The brief flight of the chicken. The meat of adult mammals such as cows , sheep , and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white. Muscle tissue is high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids , and in most cases is a good source of zinc , vitamin B 12 , selenium , phosphorus , niacin , vitamin B 6 , choline , riboflavin and iron. Several forms of meat are high in vitamin K . Muscle tissue

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3150-598: The capital of the region and nation. During the Second World War , the French relied upon the city's airport to move troops and supplies. On 21 January 1942, a lone German Heinkel He 111 of the Sonderkommando Blaich successfully bombed the airfield at Fort-Lamy, destroying oil supplies and ten aircraft. Fort-Lamy received its first bank branch in 1950, when the Bank of West Africa (BAO) opened

3225-405: The carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along

3300-446: The careful avoidance of recontamination reduce the risk of bacterial infections from meat. United Front for Democratic Change The United Front for Democratic Change ( Arabic : الجبهة المتحدة للتغيير الديمقراطي , French : Front uni pour le changement ; FUC ) was a Chadian rebel alliance, made up of eight individual rebel groups, all with the goals of overthrowing the government of Chadian president Idriss Déby . It

3375-406: The city was started by the abortive coup attempted by the northerner Prime Minister Hissène Habré against the southerner President Félix Malloum : while Malloum and the national army loyal to him were defeated, the intervention in the battle of other northern factions rival to that of Habré complicated the situation. A temporary truce was reached in 1979 through international mediation, establishing

3450-1131: The consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." Cancer Research UK , National Health Service (NHS) and the National Cancer Institute have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of bowel cancer . The American Cancer Society in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods." The Canadian Cancer Society have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk". A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat. Cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at

3525-571: The decomposition of muscle fat and protein. When meat is industrially processed, additives are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation . A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis ) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women. In

3600-488: The demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts. Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope , zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich. Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard. Several factors affect

3675-455: The exclusion of fish , other seafood, insects , poultry, or other animals. Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer . Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic , enabling the systematic production of meat and

3750-585: The exterior was by river boat up the Chari and Logone rivers, but these now carry little trade. The city has no railway links. However, railways have been proposed. Meat Meat is animal tissue , often muscle , that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates , including chickens , sheep , goats , pigs , horses , and cattle , starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with

3825-444: The first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen , about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as adenosine triphosphate is used up. This causes the muscle proteins actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin . This in turn lowers

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3900-456: The glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis , the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin , form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue ( collagen and elastin ). Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue , used by

3975-547: The government. Abdelkerim was brought into the government as Minister of Defense in March 2007. Serious fighting between elements of FUC and the government forces took place on 18 October 2007 at Goz-Beïda . The fighting was said to have been precipitated by the unwillingness of the FUC elements to disarm and integrate into the army, as provided for in the peace agreement. Abdelkerim urged these FUC elements to accept integration into

4050-450: The growth and development of meat. Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding . In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism ; another is the doppelender or " double muscling " condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases

4125-533: The increase. Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of

4200-688: The late Paleolithic in western Europe. Dogs are consumed in China, South Korea and Vietnam. Dogs are occasionally eaten in the Arctic regions. Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii, Japan, Switzerland and Mexico. Cats are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru. Guinea pigs are raised for their flesh in the Andes . Whales and dolphins are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries. Misidentification

4275-407: The later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world. In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%. Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding , allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers. For instance, in

4350-455: The meat industry than in any other British business" except finance. The US was a meat importing country by 1926. Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization ,

4425-419: The meat's water-holding capacity, so the meat loses water or "weeps". In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked. Over time, muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue , and rigor mortis resolves. These changes mean that meat

4500-425: The mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated. Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor. During

4575-574: The nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in

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4650-431: The non-meat diets were analysed. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood

4725-435: The one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide , shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol , or shocking them with electric current. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs. Draining as much blood as possible from

4800-459: The overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009. FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half

4875-482: The political situation. The city surpassed the million mark in population by the early 2010s. On 13 April 2006, a rebel United Front for Democratic Change attack on the city was defeated in the Battle of N'Djamena . The city was once again attacked on 2 February 2008, by UFDD and RFC rebels. ( See Battle of N'Djamena (2008) ) N'Djamena is located at 12°06′36″N 15°03′00″E  /  12.11000°N 15.05000°E  / 12.11000; 15.05000 , on

4950-566: The qualities desired by producers and consumers. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of the animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days. Under optimal conditions, meat is edible raw , but is often normally eaten cooked—such as by stewing or roasting —or processed —such as by smoking or salting . The consumption of meat (especially red and processed meat) increases

5025-446: The risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, coronary heart disease , and diabetes . Meat production is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming , pollution, and biodiversity loss , at every scale from local to global. Some people choose not to eat meat ( vegetarians and vegans ) for reasons such as ethics , environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules. However, meat

5100-672: The same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat. Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially amino acids , and inorganic substances such as minerals. Muscle proteins are either soluble in water ( sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions ( myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them –

5175-424: The stress of handling and transport. Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation -inducing hormones . In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of

5250-514: The tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones. Myostatin has been used to produce muscle hypertrophy . Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals increases growth rates. This practice

5325-445: The wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery. Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available. Meat production continues to be shaped by

5400-400: The warlord Goukouni Oueddei as head of a government of national unity with his rival Habré as Defense Minister. The intense rivalry between Goukouni and Habré caused the eruption of new clashes in the city in 1980; N'Djamena found itself divided into sectors controlled by the various warlords. The tug-of-war reached a conclusion after many months only when Goukouni asked for the intervention of

5475-578: Was he in Khartoum , but the F.U.C. had friendly ties to the Sudanese government. On 12 April 2006, rebels from the United Front drove 1000 km from their bases near the Sudan border to the Chadian capital, N'Djamena. Their attack on the capital which occurred before dawn was repelled by the Chadian army, as reported on 13 April. (See Battle of N'Djamena .) The eight (defunct) rebel groups that form

5550-570: Was partly destroyed during the Chadian Civil War , in 1979 and again in 1980. In these years, almost all of the population fled the town, searching for refuge on the opposite bank of the Chari River in Cameroon, next to the city of Kousséri . The residents did not return until 1981–82, after the end of the clashes. Until 1984, facilities and services were subject to strict rationing, and schools remained closed. The period of turmoil in

5625-523: Was the Tripoli Agreement . Abdullahi Abdel Karim , the spokesperson for the Rally for Democracy and Liberty (RDL) rebels said, "Each of our groups had their own forces, men and equipment. Now, we'll be joining them together." On 19 January 2006, Abdelwahit About was arrested by the Sudanese government along with twenty other F.U.C. rebels, after he gave a radio interview stating that not only

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