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157-705: With Guam in hand, the Spaniards looked to extend control to the Northern Mariana Islands . First was Rota , where the Spanish forces led by José de Quiroga y Losada conducted a quick military campaign in 1680, followed by the villagization of the Rota population into two towns in 1682. The Spaniards were welcomed on Tinian but were forced to conduct a campaign on Saipan against armed resistance. After successfully crushing rebellious villages on Saipan,

314-606: A 1969 referendum . In the 1975 Northern Mariana Islands status referendum nearly 80% voted to become a commonwealth of the United States, and in 1977 over 93% approved the constitution of the CNMI. The people of the Northern Mariana Islands decided in the 1970s not to seek independence, but instead to forge closer links with the United States. Negotiations for commonwealth status began in 1972, and

471-640: A mission in Guam be established. In 1668, San Vitores set sail from Acapulco to Guam. San Vitores called the Chamorro archipelago "Islas Marianas" ( Mariana Islands ) in honor of the Queen Regent of Spain, Maria Ana of Austria , and the Blessed Virgin Mary . The missionary landed on Guam in the village of Hagåtña and was greeted by Chief Kepuha . Kepuha's family donated land to establish

628-464: A tropical rainforest climate ( Köppen : Af) moderated by seasonal northeast trade winds , with little seasonal temperature variation. The dry season runs from December to June; the rainy season runs from July to November and can include typhoons . The Guinness Book of World Records has said Saipan has the most equable climate in the world. The Northern Mariana Islands have a multiparty presidential representative democratic system. They are

785-533: A Jesuit wrote that Guam had been "quiet for more than a year," but that priests needed armed escorts for safety and to ensure compliance: "The mission is so dependant upon arms that without them nothing can be done, because the local people pay little attention to the Fathers when they are alone. The people here respond only to fear." In late 1679, two priests accompanied by 40 Spanish troops and 40 armed Chamorro allies left Hagåtña to travel to villages that had not seen

942-440: A Spanish soldier was killed before forcing the local Chamorros to flee inland. Pushing northward, the Spaniards burnt the minority of villages that still resisted. A Jesuit writes that one resister "was cut down with an axe and his body hung by the foot from a tree to inspire fear." The force then crossed the island and pushed southward. Only the village of Araiao put up significant resistance, but their warriors were soon routed and

1099-569: A Spanish visitor since the hostilities of 1676. Everywhere they went the Spanish burned the houses for young men, destroyed the skulls of ancestors and spears, baptized children, and selected children to attend the mission school in Hagåtña. Many villages were abandoned by residents who feared the column was inflicting more retribution, but in most cases were lured back by promises of safety. The Spanish were welcomed in towns such as Tarragui and Ritidian. Some villages, such as Hanum, refused to submit and

1256-585: A badge of authority, which was very attractive to the Chamorros as their traditional culture used similar status signifiers. Often, the Spaniards would designate someone as captain of the village police, giving them a wooden staff, and encourage the new captain to deputize men he trusted as corporals, in effect creating a police force that mirrored the Spanish military structure. These village forces were then expected to assist in suppressing revolts in other villages. The Jesuits recorded that Chamorros readily accepted

1413-478: A benefit structure that had been increased without raises in funding. In August 2012, cries for impeachment arose, as the sitting governor Benigno Fitial was being held responsible for withholding payments from the pension fund, not paying the local utility (Commonwealth Utilities or "CUC") for government offices, cutting off funding to the only hospital in the Northern Marianas, interfering with

1570-530: A commonwealth of the United States. Federal funds to the commonwealth are administered by the Office of Insular Affairs of the U.S. Department of the Interior . Replicating the separation of powers elsewhere in the United States, the executive branch is headed by the governor of the Northern Mariana Islands ; legislative power is vested in the bicameral Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth Legislature and

1727-748: A copy of The Life and Martyrdom of the Venerable Father Diego Luis de San Vitores of the Society of Jesus, First Apostle of the Mariana Islands and Events of These Islands from the Year Sixteen Hundred and Sixty-Eight Through the Year Sixteen Hundred and Eighty-One , by Francisco García translated into English. Pope John Paul II beatified San Vitores in Rome in 1985. While San Vitores remains venerated by many, he

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1884-423: A covenant to establish a commonwealth in political union with the United States was approved in a 1975 referendum . A new government and constitution came into effect in part on January 9, 1978, after being approved in a 1977 referendum . The United Nations approved this arrangement pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683 . The Northern Mariana Islands came under U.S. sovereignty on November 4, 1986, and

2041-460: A dozen armed members of his mission, as well as some Chamorro converts, to Tinian in an attempt to stop a war between two villages that threatened to destabilize the missionary efforts there. When one of the warring groups made a surprise attack on the mission party, three were killed by a small artillery piece. For the first time, the Spanish force directly killed Chamorros. In early 1670, Fr. Medina and his catechist Hipolito de la Cruz were killed by

2198-706: A group of young men on Saipan as they prepared to baptize a sick child. Then, in July 1671, a Mexican mission helper in Hagatña was killed when he went outside the village to cut wood to make crosses. Spaniards arrested suspected murderers, accidentally killing a Chamorro noble. While the Spaniards intended to hold a fair trial, the concept was not understood by the Chamorros. One historian writes: "the barbarians were so greatly offended by justice, to which they were strangers, that they behaved as if they would rather be killed without trial than be arrested and examined." The outrage at

2355-584: A junior military officer in command of the island. Fortunately, a year passed without much incident and Antonio de Saravia arrived in June 1681. Unlike his predecessors, Saravia's appointment as governor was made by the King of Spain, so Guam was no longer subordinate to rule from the Philippines or Mexico. As the first official governor, Saravia appointed Antonio Ayhi as lieutenant-governor of the colony and gave him

2512-407: A knife. Boarding students from the mission school killed one attacker with knives. In total, four Spanish soldiers were killed and 17 badly wounded, but they managed to kill Yula and drive away the rebels. An even larger force of rebels returned a few days later to attempt to take the presidio but were met defenders reinforced by Ignacio Hineti and his allied Chamorros. Hineti killed the new leader of

2669-556: A large, black cloud to drift south over Saipan and Tinian. The islands lie in the Marianas tropical dry forests terrestrial ecoregion. The ocean area to the east of the islands and parts of the islands themselves are part of the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument . This area includes three northernmost islands, the "Arc of Fire" refuge, which includes 21 underwater volcanic sites, and

2826-440: A major source of tension in 1670. The church in Hagåtña was moved outside of the presidio walls and build to accommodate 1,000 parishioners. Further, the Spaniards had largely succeeded in consolidating the population. The residents on seven rural villages near Hagåtña were convinced to settle within a couple miles of garrison, creating the barrios of Sinajana, Anigua , and Santa Cruz (now part of East Hagåtña). The entire town center

2983-584: A military career, but San Vitores instead chose to pursue his religious interests. In 1640, he entered the Jesuit novitiate and was ordained a priest in 1651. San Vitores was granted his request for a mission in the Philippines . In 1662, San Vitores stopped in Guam on the way to the Philippines and vowed to return. Three years later, through his close ties to the royal court, he persuaded King Philip IV of Spain and Queen Mariana of Austria to order

3140-402: A military presence would be necessary to protect the priests serving Guam. In 1672, San Vitores ordered churches built in four villages , including Merizo . Later that year, Chamorro resistance increased and San Vitores, along with his sacristan Pedro Calungsod , was killed by Matå'pang and Hurao. The cause for San Vitores's beatification was formally opened on 16 March 1695, granting him

3297-406: A month, a severe typhoon ended the siege, inflicting more casualties than the battle. During the entire course of the siege, Chamorros lost five men. This is compared to the eight Chamorro deaths from warfare recorded by the Spaniards in the previous three years, indicating that the siege was abnormally bloody by the standards of traditional Chamorro warfare. In the five months after the lifting of

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3454-430: A new peace was secured. The Spaniards did not attempt to control the northern islands again until 1694, when Quiroga captured Saipan but faced an entrenched defense by the population of Tinian, who had taken shelter on Aguiguan . Upon winning the battle, Quiroga ordered that the population of Tinian be relocated to Guam. While some disobeyed and fled to the islands of the far north, Tinian was soon emptied. The final stage

3611-599: A non-voting delegate to the US Congress. The Mariana Islands were the first islands settled by humans in Remote Oceania . Incidentally, their settlement was the first and longest of the ocean-crossing voyages of the Austronesian peoples , separate from the later Polynesian settlement of the rest of Remote Oceania. The islands were first settled around 1500 to 1400 BC by people from the Philippines . This

3768-454: A protective ancestor spirit to gain its help. Chamorros would occasionally consult a makana , who were believed to be skilled intermediaries with guardian spirits. As well as destroying skull shrines, the Spaniards' religious aims explicitly undermined the authority of the makanas , whom the Spaniards called "sorcerers". The first violence against the mission was an August 1668 violent attack against missionary Fr. Morales on Tinian , who

3925-453: A recorded disagreement among Chamorros themselves. In June 1676, Francisco de Irrisari arrived on Guam and became the first person to take the title of Governor of the Mariana Islands , replacing both Esplana as military commander and the mission for civil matters as he formalized complete authority. He also arrived with fourteen additional soldiers, bringing the garrison to over 50 men. Irrisari continued Esplana's tactics, marching on Talisay,

4082-567: A second town at Agusan. The population was then largely concentrated in these two towns. However, there was still resistance. A spear was thrown at the door of the Sosa rectory while the church in Agusan was burnt twice during the year. However, the Agusan priest was confident about his victory: "The dead receive Christian burial, and the sick are brought to the church for the sacraments on the shoulders of relatives." With Rota firmly under their control,

4239-456: A village inland from Agat , and conducting a daylight attack that killed five people. A few weeks later, the garrison had to put down a revolt in Orote that was incited when a Chamorro girl who attended a mission school and had converted to Christianity married one of the Spanish militia against the wishes of her father. Irrisari hanged the father of the girl as punishment for incitement and brought

4396-593: A village near Orote Point . Spanish forces turned in June 1674, when the Manila galleon that visited the island left behind Damián de Esplana, a trained military officer with 23 years of military service in Colonial Chile , who was originally bound for the Philippines. Esplana was immediately put in charge of the garrison of 21 militia. Unlike the Jesuit Superiors before him, Esplana believed that "for

4553-478: A warning to other resisting Chamorros. In January 1675, Esplana attacked to the north of Guam, burning the resisting villages of Sidia and Ati. One historian further states that Esplana "threw down a steep slope several natives who tried to impede his passage." Esplana joined with the allied forces of Chief Antonio Ayhi to destroy Sagua, whose villagers had previously killed one of the Jesuits. Esplana continued to

4710-457: Is Capitol Hill , a village in northwestern Saipan. The current governor of the CNMI is Arnold Palacios , who entered office in January 2023. The legislative branch has a 9-member Senate and a 20-member House of Representatives. The islands were settled around 1500 BC when various peoples migrated there. Eventually, the islands were claimed by Spain in 1521. In the 18th century, the people of

4867-435: Is nepotism carried out within the trappings of democracy. In April 2012, anticipating a loss of funding by 2014, the commonwealth's public pension fund declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy . The retirement fund is a defined benefit -type pension plan and was only partially funded by the government, with only $ 268.4 million in assets and $ 911 million in liabilities . The plan experienced low investment returns and

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5024-483: Is Palua, home to Chamorro people. To the south and east is Micronesia, which is home to the Carolinian people, many of which also settled on the CNMI centuries ago. Saipan has some additional semi-attached islets, including Bird Island, a nature reserve for birds. It is connected to Saipan only at low tide. Forbidden Island is similar, but larger on the southeast side of Saipan. The Northern Mariana Islands have

5181-530: Is also a figure of criticism in indigenous Chamorro art and literature today. The controversy over his legacy in the Marianas remained strong. The well-known Chamorro poet Craig Santos Perez critically considers San Vitores's negative impact in his poem "from achiote" and other works. The spoken-word poet Jay Baza Pascua seeks to rehabilitate Matå'pang's image as a great chief and leader in his poem "A Descendant of Matå'pang." Vince Diaz focuses on San Vitores,

5338-441: Is evident in the paucity of details concerning any Spanish effort to, if not stem the tide of this decline (often linked to an impending or even realized “extinction” of Chamorros), then render some form of medical response, particularly to the several epidemics and disease outbreaks that pepper the Spanish record. To find any reference to a Spanish effort on this front is to hold a wilting moment of history that cannot be extended into

5495-422: Is not clear they were placed there for defense or simply because they were along footpaths. For weapons, ancient Chamorros favored the sling and, for melee, spears tipped with fire-hardened or barbed tips made from human shinbone that often caused infections in those wounded. Armor consisted of palm leaf mats placed on the head and chest on the otherwise naked body. Boys and young men competed in challenges with

5652-649: Is often cited as a grave and insensitive offense by the missionaries against the indigenous Chamorro people. After Chief Kepuha died in 1669, Spanish missionary and Chamorro relations worsened, and the Chamorro–Spanish War began in 1671, led on the Chamorro side by Maga'låhi (Chief) Hurao . After several attacks on the Spanish mission, peace was negotiated. Though San Vitores claimed to want to emulate Francis Xavier , who did not use soldiers in his missionization efforts in India, as his model priest, he also felt that

5809-628: Is responsible for establishing the Christian presence in the Mariana Islands . He is a controversial figure in some circles due to his role in the Spanish–Chamorro Wars . A son of a nobleman , he was baptized Diego Jerónimo de San Vitores y Alonso de Maluendo. He was born on November 12, 1627, in the city of Burgos , Spain to Don Jerónimo de San Vitores and Doña María Alonso Maluenda. His parents attempted to persuade him to pursue

5966-568: Is to the south of the CNMI and Rota. To the east is Wake Island, then further east is the island of Midway, and eventually, the start of the Hawaiian island chain. American Samoa is located to the east and south and lies below the Equator. To the north and east, lies Alaska, which is a string of islands known as the Aleutians . To the west of the CNMI is the Philippines, and to the south and west

6123-518: Is worse than the life we are forced to live?" Around this time, Antonio Ayhi became known as the most pro-Spanish of the chiefs. Ayhi ensured the loyalty of this village, while attempting to prohibit anti-Spanish Chamorros from passing through. Other pro-Spanish chiefs included Ignacio Hineti of Sinajana and Alonso So'on of Agat , who led battalions in support of Spanish attacks on hostile villages. By this time, at least four villages on Guam had mission schools, whose students were often fiercely loyal to

6280-606: The Carolines (Micronesia region) during the 19th century. Both this Carolinian sub-ethnicity and Carolinians in the Carolines archipelago refer to themselves as the Refaluwasch . The indigenous Chamorro word for the same group of people is gu'palao . They are usually referred to simply as "Carolinians", though, unlike the other two monikers, this can also mean those who live in the Carolines and may have no affiliation with

6437-704: The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands ( CNMI ), is an unincorporated territory and commonwealth of the United States consisting of 14 islands in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. The CNMI includes the 14 northernmost islands in the Mariana Archipelago ; the southernmost island, Guam is a U.S. territory. The Northern Mariana Islands were listed by the United Nations as a non-self-governing territory until 1990. During

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6594-694: The South Seas Mandate . During the Japanese period, sugar cane became the primary industry of the islands. Garapan on Saipan was developed as a regional capital, and numerous Japanese (including ethnic Koreans and Okinawan and Taiwanese ) migrated to the islands. In the December 1939 census, the total population of the South Seas Mandate was 129,104, of whom 77,257 were Japanese (including ethnic Taiwanese and Koreans). On Saipan,

6751-770: The Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded Guam to the United States and sold the remainder of the Marianas (i.e., the Northern Marianas), along with the Caroline Islands, to Germany under the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899 . The United States could have taken the entire Marianas, but beyond that, Guam saw no need for the group. Germany administered the islands as part of its colony of German New Guinea and did little in terms of development. Germany built an office on Saipan to administer

6908-678: The Talofofo area until 1972. Japanese nationals were eventually repatriated to the Japanese home islands . After World War II, the people of Marianas were able to return to the Northern Marianas under the protection of the United Nations Trusteeship administered by the United States. During this time, a series of referendums took place. After Japan's defeat in World War II, the Northern Marianas were administered by

7065-491: The judicial power is vested in the CNMI Supreme Court and the trial courts inferior to it. Some critics, including the author of the political website Saipan Sucks , say that politics in the Northern Mariana Islands is often "more a function of family relationships and personal loyalties" where the size of one's extended family is more important than a candidate's personal qualifications. They charge that this

7222-460: The lanchu system that became typical of Chamorro society, in which people lived in towns but worked on remote ranches. The concentration of the population in larger settlements appears to have accelerated the spread of deadly foreign diseases, with 917 deaths being recorded from 1680 to 1683 on Guam and Rota, compared to about twenty Chamorro deaths from hostilities in the same period. Salas unexpectedly left in 1680, leaving José de Quiroga y Losada,

7379-435: The "flying proa ," impressed the first Spanish sailors to the Marianas. A 1668 description reported that there were approximately 180 autonomous villages on Guam with a total island population between 35,000 and 50,000. There is very little archaeological evidence for warfare among the ancient Chamorros. While some inland latte stone structures were located along ridge tops that allowed easy spotting of approaching warriors, it

7536-418: The 3,500 range—3,539 Chamorros (the most commonly cited number) remained out of early or pre-San Vitores ‘contact’ estimates ranging from as high as 100,000 to as low as 35,000 Chamorros living in the Mariana Islands. Regardless of the unrecoverable correct number, this figure represents a massive decline in the Chamorro population that went even further after the forced centralization of Chamorros onto Guam (with

7693-467: The 30,000 Japanese troops defending Saipan, fewer than 1,000 remained alive at the battle's end. Many civilians were also killed, by disease, starvation, enemy fire, or suicide; about 1,000 civilians killed themselves by jumping off cliffs. U.S. forces then recaptured Guam on July 21, and invaded Tinian on July 24. A year later, Tinian was the takeoff point for the Enola Gay , the plane that dropped

7850-414: The Chamorros could be trusted. In response, the Spaniards reinforced walls of the Hagåtña presidio, construction new sentry stations and changing the layout of buildings to improve security. Antonio Ayhi arrived with a force to assist in the defense, but the Spaniards advised him to leave for fear of repercussions to his village. In mid-October 1676, Agualin led to a force of 1,500 men to the presidio, which

8007-587: The Chamorros until the boat was recovered. Three days after he had been welcomed on his arrival, Magellan fled the archipelago. Spain regarded the islands as annexed and later made them part of the Spanish East Indies in 1565. In 1734, the Spanish built a royal palace, the Plaza de España , in Guam for the governor of the islands. The palace was largely destroyed during World War II, but portions of it remain. Guam operated as an important stopover between

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8164-510: The House floor. In the United States, a non-voting delegate is not a new concept, but rather goes back to before 1800. Territorial delegates represent their region's interest in Congress, and their powers have been established over time, beginning in 1795. A major power of the territorial delegates (which have also been called Resident Commissioners), besides serving on committees, is speaking on

8321-453: The Interior cites a landmass of 183.5 square miles (475.26 km ). According to the 2020 United States Census , 47,329 people were living in the CNMI at the time. The vast majority of the population resides on Saipan , Tinian , and Rota . The other islands of the Northern Marianas are sparsely inhabited; the most notable among these is Pagan , which was left largely uninhabited since a 1981 volcanic eruption. The administrative center

8478-853: The Japanese in the Battle of Saipan in 1944, and after the war, became part of the UN Trust Territory called the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI). Over the decades, integration with Guam was rejected, and eventually, the islands left the TTPI and became a part of the US in 1986. The Northern Marianas then became the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and its residents are US citizens. In 2009, they elected

8635-403: The Jesuit who became head of the mission after San Vitores' death, continued conciliatory policies, partially from awareness of the mission's weakness. Of the 31 original mission helpers, only 21 remained and there were only 13 muskets. Solano was concerned that if hostile Chamorros realized how inaccurate the muskets were, they would overwhelm the mission. He forbade mission personnel from visiting

8792-411: The Marianas may have made what was at that point the longest uninterrupted ocean-crossing voyage in human history. Archeological evidence indicates that Tinian may have been the first Pacific island to be settled. The Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan , sailing under the Spanish flag, arrived in 1521. He and his crew were the first Europeans to arrive in the Mariana Islands. He landed on Guam,

8949-408: The Marianas raised colonnades of megalithic-capped pillars called latte stones upon which they built their homes. The Spanish reported that by their arrival, the largest of these was already in ruins and that the Chamorros believed the ancestors who had erected the pillars lived in an era when people possessed supernatural abilities. In 2013 archaeologists posited that the first people to settle in

9106-452: The Marianas region. The Chamorro-Carolinian Language Policy Commission was created in 1982 to carry out policies in support of the Chamorro and Carolinian languages and cultures. In December 1986, 20 percent of the homes on Saipan were destroyed by Typhoon Kim , trees were stripped of foliage, thousands of coconut trees were knocked down, roads were blocked, and there was no electricity or public water supply for weeks. In April 1990,

9263-563: The Marianas. The conquering Spanish did not focus attempts at cultural suppression against Carolinian immigrants, whose immigration they allowed during a period when the indigenous Chamorro majority was being subjugated with land alienation, forced relocations, and internment. Carolinians in the Marianas continue to be fluent in the Carolinian language and have maintained many of the cultural distinctions and traditions of their ethnicity's land of ancestral origin. Following its loss during

9420-716: The Marianas. In September, Quiroga and 50 soldiers sailed to Rota where they chased the residents of a resisting village into the mountains until they gave up. The Spaniards destroyed their weapons and relocated 26 sakmans worth of people to Guam. In July 1696, Quiroga and 80 troops, including a unit of Chamorro militia, sailed to Tinian. However, the residents took refuge in the imposing mountain island of Aguiguan. Several Spanish soldiers were killed by stones and spears when trying to approach and Quiroga withdrew to Saipan, while he waited for 20 sakmans of Chamorro militia to catch up. On Saipan, Quiroga encountered only token resistance, chasing Saipanese warriors for days. However, he also told

9577-454: The Northern Marianas, many Carolinians from present-day eastern Yap State and western Chuuk State had settled in the Marianas. Both languages, as well as English, are now official in the commonwealth. In 1720 the Spanish moved the remaining islanders, whose population had been decimated by diseases, from the Marianas to Guam. By 1741, there was about 5000 remaining Chamorros. The Northern Marianas experienced an influx of immigration from

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9734-533: The Philippines and Mexico for the Manila galleon , which carried trading between Spanish colonies. In 1668, Father Diego Luis de San Vitores renamed the islands Las Marianas in honor of his patroness, the Spanish regent Mariana of Austria (1634–1696), widow of Felipe IV (reigned 1621–1665). Most of the islands' native population (90–95%) died from European diseases carried by the Spaniards or married non-Chamorro settlers under Spanish rule. New settlers from

9891-418: The Philippines and the Caroline Islands were brought to repopulate the islands. The Chamorro population gradually recovered, and Chamorro, Filipino , and Refaluwasch languages and other ethnic groups remain in the Marianas. During the 17th century, Spanish colonists forcibly moved the Chamorros to Guam, to encourage assimilation and conversion to Roman Catholicism . By the time they were allowed to return to

10048-409: The Spaniards and, by their opposition to bachelors' houses, were "depriv[ing] parents of the good price they would have received for the services of their daughters in these houses. Instead, they seek to marry off the girls to their own mission helpers or soldiers." Agualin also stated that the mission demanded that Chamorros attend religious services when they would rather be working, asking, "What death

10205-457: The Spaniards claimed the head of one of the leaders. The campaign ended, Quiroga sent 25 soldiers to force submission of the sparsely populated islands further north while he began constructing a fort on Saipan. However, the reduced garrison in Hagåtña tempted the rebels still on Guam. Chief Yula (Yura) of Apurguan, near Tamuning , rallied other resisters, starting in Ritidian and Pago. News of

10362-412: The Spaniards looked further north. In early 1682, the mission superior, Fr. Manuel Solorzano, took a military escort on a trip north. On Tinian and Aguigan , Solorzano baptized 300 infants. However, his party was nearly ambushed on Saipan and achieved little on the island before being forced to turn back to Guam because of unfavorable winds. Twice in 1683, Saravia tried to lead Jesuit missions north but

10519-458: The Spaniards quickly captured Hurao. While the military head of the mission, Juan de Santa Cruz, favored an attack, San Vitores insisted on trying to appease the attackers with gifts of food and turtle shell. The besieging Chamorros conducted themselves largely by the norms of ritualized island warfare, characterized by ceremonial posturing, displays of physical prowess, and the avoidance of an all-out battle that might result in heavy casualties. After

10676-427: The Spaniards was the conduct of the garrison. Since the arrival of Esplana, the soldiers had begun operating independently of the Jesuits. Meanwhile, the new recruits were often not well trained and, in the worst cases, criminals who had been given the choice of military duty on Guam or a prison in the Philippines. While the garrison had expanded to 115 in 1680, there was only pay for 40 soldiers, meaning that each soldier

10833-402: The Spaniards. The militia had also begun marrying Chamorro women, further increasing the number of Chamorros with personal ties to the mission. In late August 1676, Chamorro resisters set fire to the church and mission quarters at Ayra'an. A force led by Irrisari responded, leaving eight soldier to protect missionaries at Orote before returning to Hagåtña. A week later, as the pastor of Orote and

10990-446: The Spanish burned some houses in retaliation. The Jesuits were pleased by the pro-Spanish and pro-Christian change in attitudes. In Orote, the body of a man hanged for insurrection was dragged by small children who pelted the corpse with stones while shouting, "Die, dog, die. You refused to be a Christian." Most inhabitants of the island were attending church and regularly bringing children for baptism and bodies for burial, which had been

11147-569: The United States pursuant to Security Council Resolution 21 as part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands , which assigned responsibility for defense and foreign affairs to the United States as trustee. Four referendums offering integration with Guam or changes to the islands' status were held in 1958 , 1961 , 1963 and 1969 . On each occasion, a majority voted in favor of integration with Guam, but this did not happen: Guam rejected integration in

11304-573: The actions but were unable to stop them. The next month, a Jesuit was killed in Upi by a Chamorro man who accused him of cheating him in a trade. In response, the villagers of nearby Tarragui, who were close to the priest, sent an armed force to challenge Upi to battle. Unopposed, the Tarragui force burned the home of the killer and retrieved the body of the priest for burial. Both of these events in northern Guam involved personal insults or disagreements, with

11461-416: The ancestral skull in the house and stop killing children and that if the Jesuit did not leave immediately, he would kill San Vitores. When Matå'pang left to get weapons and more men, San Vitores entered the house and baptized the girl. San Vitores and Calungsod were caught by the enraged Matå'pang and his companion, by legend Hurao. Calungsod was killed first, followed soon afterward by San Vitores, whose skull

11618-475: The atomic bomb on Hiroshima . Rota was left untouched (and isolated) until the Japanese surrender in August 1945, owing to its military insignificance and U.S. forces' strategy of "island hopping" in which they did not invade islands that they did not need. The story of the holdouts on Anatahan was told in 1953 by Josef von Sternberg in his film The Saga of Anatahan . The war did not end for everyone with

11775-453: The besieged mission. In June 1678, the new governor, Juan Antonio de Salas arrived with thirty additional soldiers, and immediately restarted the violent suppression of resisting villages. Salas assaulted the villages of Apoto and Tupalao, burning them to the ground, killing two, and taking two children for enrollment in the mission school in Hagåtña. The Spanish force met resistance at Fuuna , killing an unrecorded number of men before torching

11932-461: The canonization movement, and San Vitores's legacy of alleged "mass destruction" among the Marianas' indigenous peoples in his book Repositioning the Missionary. Cynthia Ross Wiecko describes San Vitores and other Jesuit missionaries as "agents of empire": "Using the lens of ecological change brings Jesuits into a different perspective, one where it is difficult to see them as heroes. Although

12089-518: The colonial period, the Northern Marianas were variously under the control of the Spanish , German , and Japanese empires. After World War II , the islands were part of the United Nations trust territories under American administration before formally joining the United States as a territory in 1986, with their population gaining United States citizenship. The United States Department of

12246-544: The colonists. In March 1672, a young Mexican member of the mission, Diego Bazan, was killed in Chochogo, an inland village that was a center of anti-Spanish resistance. The next day, two Filipino catechists and their Spanish soldier escort were also ambushed and killed in Chocogo. A few days later, San Vitores, who had been in the southern village of Nisichan overseeing the construction of church began returning to Hagåtña. On

12403-413: The community may have believed this would elevate their social status while other village chiefs desired priests for their own village, probably as symbols of status. Some islanders apparently also received the sacrament of baptism more than once for the gifts of beads and clothing they were given. This enthusiasm for Catholicism did not last long, however, as several factors quickly came into play, including

12560-436: The conflicts it created in the hierarchal caste system of the Chamorros. The church preached that once baptized, people were equal in the eyes of God. The missionary’s dogmatic zeal was also not well received as the Jesuits shunned long-standing traditional beliefs and practices in trying to assimilate the Chamorros in Christian doctrine. This included the rejection of the Chamorros long-standing veneration of ancestors. As part of

12717-519: The context of Spain's centuries-long colonization of the Mariana Islands. And yet as scholarship has concerned itself with the chronological and interpretative “facts” of Guam's history, such a blatant gap in the telling of the Spanish colonial era—extending, of course, to the Northern Mariana Islands—has gone unaccounted for and has yet to materialize simply because it is not part of this regurgitated record." The San Vitores Martyrdom Site

12874-478: The decline after 1668, but deaths from the Spanish-Chamorro Wars certainly played a role in the indigenous population's decline as well. Reflecting the devastating blows to Guam's native population, the first official Spanish census in 1710 indicated the Chamorro population to be 3,197. At that time, twenty percent of the population lived in and around Agaña, with the remaining population spread among

13031-400: The delivery of a subpoena to his attorney general, withholding required funds from the public schools, and for signing a sole source $ 190 million contract for power generation. Diego Luis de San Vitores Diego Luis de San Vitores , SJ (November 12, 1627 – April 2, 1672) was a Spanish Jesuit missionary who founded the first Catholic church on the island of Guam . He

13188-517: The eastern caldera and causing an ash plume 12 km (7.5 mi) high which impaired air traffic to Saipan and Guam. The Northern Mariana Islands does not have voting representation in the United States Congress , but, since 2009, has been represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by a delegate ; congressional delegates may participate in debates and serve on congressional committees but may not cast decisive votes on

13345-502: The exception of a few hundred “refugees” on Rota—Underwood 1973) and into the established, church-centered enclaves of Pago, Inapsan, Inarahan (Inarajan/Inalåhan), Merizo (Malesso’), Umatac (Humåtac), and Agat (Hågat) enforced by Joseph de Quiroga y Losada following his administrative destruction of many Chamorro villages after his 1680 arrival on Guam. By the 1758 full census, only 1,711 “native Indians” remained, along with 170 soldiers and 830 “Spanish & Filipinos.” This Spanish non-action

13502-637: The feathers for hats. Early in World War I , Japan declared war on Germany and invaded the Northern Marianas. In 1919 after the war concluded, the League of Nations (LoN) awarded all of Germany's islands in the Pacific Ocean located north of the Equator , including the Northern Marianas, under mandate to Japan. Under this arrangement, the Japanese thus administered the Northern Marianas as part of

13659-401: The first Catholic mission on Guam. On February 2, 1669, San Vitores established the first Catholic Church in Hagåtña and dedicated it to "the sweet name of Mary," "Dulce Nombre de Maria." According to former journalist and Guampedia editor Tanya Champaco Mendiola: "The Chamorros initially welcomed San Vitores and the other Catholic missionaries, and hundreds were readily converted. The nobles of

13816-412: The first confrontation occurred when a spear-wielding Chamorro threatened a Mexican mission helper who was attempting to destroy a shrine of ancestral skulls, under the orders of the priests. While the Spaniards did not bother themselves with recording the religious beliefs of Chamorros, scholars assume that their belief system was similar to other islanders in being largely based upon providing offerings to

13973-479: The floor. Perhaps more importantly, the position is seen as a precursor to establishing voting rights, and discussion about granting delegate voting rights have occurred. In 2018, 18 people embarked on a mission to repopulate the northern islands of Alamagan and Agrihan. They left Saipan aboard the M/V Super Emerald; the families involved originally had come from Alamagan. The mayor's office coordinated

14130-434: The force under Quiroga began constructing a fort to solidify control of the area. However, with most of the Spanish soldiers in the north, Guam had erupted into rebellion. Yula led a sneak attack upon the Hagåtña presido on July 13, 1683, killing the Jesuit mission superior, severely wounding Governor Damián de Esplana, and killing four soldiers before they were repelled. A larger force of hostile Chamorros then returned to begin

14287-420: The galleon trade in his own pocket. In 1688, when Esplana suddenly left for Manila, Quiroga became interim governor and disciplined soldiers to force them to give up "the licentious life to which they were accustomed." The outraged soldiers mutinied and threw Quiroga into a cell. Only the pleading of the Jesuit mission superior stopped the garrison's plans to execute Quiroga and secured his release. Esplana returned

14444-483: The good of the Christian community it was necessary to give an example of punishment that would warn the barbarians, whom mildness only made more bold." As his first example, Esplana threatened the people of Chochogo, a center of anti-Spanish resistance, unless it allowed free access to mission personnel. The Chamorros refused and Esplana ordered a night attack with orders to kill any men who resisted. The Spaniards recorded that several men were killed, as well as one woman in

14601-402: The harsh treatment of Guamanian Chamorros during the 31-month occupation, created a rift that would become the main reason Guamanians rejected the referendum on the reunification of Guam with the Northern Marianas that the Northern Marianas approved in the 1960s. On June 15, 1944, the United States military invaded the Mariana Islands, starting the Battle of Saipan , which ended on July 9. Of

14758-462: The heads so they could be impaled on the wall of the presido as a warning to others. People in villages around Guam presented the heads of those who had murdered priests, or turned them over for public execution by the Spaniards. In April 1680, the people of Rota sent the body of Matå'pang, where he had been hiding, in the hopes of avoiding Spanish punishment. The Chamorro resistance was largely broken and its remnants went into deep hiding. In June 1680,

14915-492: The highest elevation at 3,166 feet (965 m). An expedition organized by John D. Mitchler and Reid Larson made the first complete ascent to the summit of this peak on June 1, 2018. The islands going from north to south comprise 14 main islands, but some smaller islands are often grouped together. Also, Zealandia Bank can sometimes be an island, depending on the tide. In terms of area, it is smaller than Guam; however, as an island chain, it spans hundreds of kilometers/miles from

15072-483: The homes. Salas continued to Orote and Sumay , both hotbeds of anti-Spanish resistance, torching both before proceeding to Talofofo and Picpuc . In their campaign, the Spaniards informed the populace that Chamorros would turn over any murderers or rebels, that anyone sheltering a murder or rebel would be hanged. If these rules were not obeyed, the village would be collectively punished . Adherence to these new rules would be rewarded by special recognition and titles and

15229-451: The inhabitants of the western coast of Anatahan were evacuated after earthquake swarms and active fumaroles indicated that an eruption might be imminent, but no eruption occurred at that time. A further earthquake swarm occurred in May 1992. The first historical eruption of Anatahan occurred in May 2003, when a large explosive eruption with a VEI of 4 took place, forming a new crater inside

15386-471: The island's people and environmental history." Robert Haddock on A History of Health on Guam: ". . . as the Spanish eventually quelled the Chamorro rebellion, "peace" was established at the price of the extinction of a race." Francis X. Hezel writes: “ What began as a religious mission to proclaim the gospel of peace soon degenerated into an out-and-out war of military conquest which, as the histories have it, killed off vast numbers of native Chamorros before

15543-610: The island, and the head administrator was Georg Fritz. San Jose church was built during the German period. The Germans established a public school system and homesteading program, and some efforts were put into copra production; there was an overall effort to grow the economy with roads being built and vocational/trades training. Pagan and Alamagan were leased to a company called Pagan Gesellschaft, which planned to produce copra there, although its goals were hampered by numerous typhoons . Eight islands were leased to bird hunters, which used

15700-609: The islanders became US citizens . Also on November 4, 1986, the Northern Mariana Islands constitution became fully effective under the Covenant. In May 1981, volcanic eruptions led to the evacuation of the island of Pagan . Most residents of Pagan have not yet returned to Pagan due to ongoing volcanic activity. In the 1960s and 1970s, agriculture and ranching became an important activity with thousands of beef cattle, dairy cows, hogs, and many crops such as pineapple. The food production became an important source of food supply for

15857-466: The loss of about a third of the Spanish garrison, between 45 and 50, and perhaps 30 or 35 losses among the Chamorro rebels. Esplana grew violently paranoid after being nearly killed in 1684. He ordered soldiers to "shoot at sight any enemy islander", resulting in the deaths of "two children aged eight and nine years, two women who were ill, and an infirm old man." Esplana used his office to both procure young girls for sexual exploitation and put profits from

16014-428: The main economic focus was sugar production, and for example, about 98% of Tinian island was used to grow sugarcane . On December 8, 1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor , Japanese forces from the Marianas launched an invasion of Guam . Chamorros from the Northern Marianas, which had been under Japanese rule for more than 20 years, were brought to Guam to assist the Japanese administration. This, combined with

16171-425: The mission group, such as Hagåtña, did not appear to give credence to these stories. This violence made San Vitores reconsider his opposition to armed force. He sent to letter to the Philippines asking for 200 additional men, this time equipped with weapons, as well as asking that Manila galleons stopping by be prepared "to carry out punishment and remedy whatever misfortunes might occur." In late 1669, San Vitores led

16328-435: The mission, but the Spaniards managed to grow enough crops within the stockade to survive. The defenders easily fended off the half-hearted attempts to storm the presidio, until January 1677, when the besieging Chamorro force disbanded and left. Agualin eluded the Spaniards until 1679, when he was recognized while landing a sakman and killed. During the siege, Antonio Ayhi and other pro-Spanish leaders attempted to bring food to

16485-447: The missionaries were finally able to make believers out of the few survivors.” ("From Conversion to Conquest: The Early Spanish Mission in the Marianas", Journal of Pacific History , pp 115-137, 1982.) Nicholas Goetzfridt states: "A good non-action example would be the Spanish non-response to massive Chamorro depopulation. The first census of 1710 revealed that—although published interpretative variations eventually find middle ground in

16642-505: The months-long project plans, including a clean water supply, establishment of radio contact, and hopefully sending more families to the two islands. One returning Marianan remarked, "I was born and raised on Saipan but my family is from Alamagan. We are going to live there for a long time." The 2020 United States Census reported a total of 7 people living on Alamagan and Agrihan. Typhoon Yutu caused widespread damage in October 2018, and

16799-454: The new couple back to Hagatña for safety. By this time, the Spanish attacks against villages had become the main cause of grievance among anti-Spanish Chamorros. In the late summer of 1676, Agualin , a blind high-caste Chamorro from Hagåtña, began traveling around Guam to rally resistance, like Hurao five years before him. As well as the old stories of killing children, Agualin said that the Spaniards were turning children against those resisting

16956-472: The next year, though he largely lived in Umatac as he worked on his shipping schemes. Eventually, the garrison gave in to the demands of the missionaries to finish the conquest of the northern islands. In early 1691, Esplana, Quiroga, and 80 soldiers sailed to Rota, where the visibly trembling governor pled the populace for peace before ordering the expedition back to Guam. This convinced the Jesuits that Esplana

17113-476: The nighttime confusion. Two weeks later, the Spaniards attacked Chochogo, burning its houses, destroying many spears, and killing two Chamorros. In November 1674, Esplana led an expedition to Tumon, where villagers were refusing to participate in any Christian programs. Finding the village deserted, he caught up to a fleeing sakman , killing a man who had killed a mission assistant a couple years earlier. The dead man he ordered dismembered and hung between two poles as

17270-537: The north of Guam, which had become dangerously hostile, and there were even concerns that southern villages would turn away. Two more Filipinos were killed on Rota , the island just north of Guam, about a month later. Solano then succumbed to tuberculosis , only two months after the death of San Vitores. After the tumult of 1672, 1673 was calm. However, in February 1674, Fr. Francisco Ezquerra and five of his six companion were killed while walking from Umatac to Fuuna,

17427-615: The northern Marianas were forced by Spain to relocate, and when they returned, new peoples migrated there. In 1899 Spain sold the Northern Marianas to Germany in the Spanish-German Treaty of 1899 , while Guam went to the United States. At the end of World War I, with the defeat of Germany, the islands became a part of the Japanese Mandate under the League of Nations, starting in 1918. The islands were liberated from

17584-488: The northern islands to escape Spanish control, but none dared stay on Tinian and the island was soon abandoned. More than 300 of the 2,000 people who lived in Gani, the eight small islands at the top of the Marianas chain, had been relocated to Saipan. When the Jesuit pastor of Saipan realized that the people from Gani had begun sneaking back to their home islands, he called on the new governor in Guam, José Madrazo , to complete

17741-603: The northernmost to the southernmost. Many islands have multiple names due to popular nicknames, usually of Spanish, Chamorro, or English origin. Many of the islands have had to be evacuated due to volcanic activity. Anatahan Volcano is a small volcanic island 80 miles (130 km) north of Saipan. It is about 6 miles (10 km) long and 2 miles (3 km) wide. Anatahan began erupting from its east crater on May 10, 2003. It has since alternated between eruptive and calm periods. On April 6, 2005, an estimated 50,000,000 cubic feet (1,416,000 m ) of ash and rock were ejected, causing

17898-447: The other reducción villages. By 1760, the total population numbered just 1,654 and later fell to only 1,318 in 1786. This was just a shadow of the once-thriving Chamorro society Europeans first encountered... The evidence here indicates that imperial dominance and catholicization shared similar roots of brutality, directly affecting changes in the landscape, settlement patterns, and land use. The combined effects of both fundamentally altered

18055-454: The populace that he would not seek revenge as long as they allowed missionaries to work on the islands in the future. When he returned to Tinian with his Chamorro allies, Quiroga found that the entire population had retreated to Aguiguan. Quiroga made the same offer to the people of Tinian that he had made on Saipan, but they did not respond. He then burned the houses on Tinian as a warning, to no response. The Spaniards then blockaded Aguiguan so

18212-401: The pre-war population comprised 29,348 Japanese settlers and 3,926 Chamorro and Caroline Islanders; Tinian had 15,700 Japanese settlers (including 2,700 ethnic Koreans and 22 ethnic Chamorro). The Japanese built military constructions on the island in the 1930s and, in December 1941, used it as a staging area to invade Guam, which was part of the U.S. at that time. During the Japanese mandate,

18369-420: The preachers but commit depredations." Upon arrival, local chiefs competed for the mission to come to their villages. Chief Kepuha of Hagåtña threw a feast the following day where the Spanish gave all the local chiefs iron hoops in exchange for food. The missionaries baptized 23 islanders, mostly young children. The mission established its headquarters in Hagåtña, consisting of a grouping of structures, including

18526-526: The precursor to the Dulce Nombre de Maria Cathedral Basilica . San Vitores refused to allow a palisade or other fortification, as contrary to the mission's gospel of peace. In January 1669, the first stone and lime church was dedicated in Hagåtña, followed by the opening of a boy's elementary school, the first formal institution for education to be established in the Pacific. A few days after arriving,

18683-416: The priests and garrison. On July 13, 1683, Yula and about 40 others concealed weapons as they infiltrated the presidio while pretending to attend mass. They killed the guards, left an injured Esplana for dead, and killed two Jesuit priests. The attackers repeatedly stabbed Fr. Solorzano, the mission superior, and severed his hand before a Chamorro mission helper who sided with Yula cut the priest's throat with

18840-503: The rebellion spread quickly. By chance, most of the village priests were on their way to Hagåtña for a meeting and avoided being caught in the uprising. The exception was the priest of Ritidian, who was slain at the command of a chief who was angry that the priest had insisted that his daughter be married in a church. However, many Chamorros on Guam sided with the Spaniards. The rebels tried to convince Ignacio Hineti to join them, but he refused. The boys attending mission school often sided with

18997-504: The rebellion, placing his head on a post. However, the attackers managed to burn the church and rectory and threatened to swarm the walls. The Jesuits armed themselves to defend the stockade, eventually forcing the attackers to withdraw by sakman , where they incited Chamorros both on Guam and in the northern islands to join the rebellion. The two Jesuits based on Rota were killed, one when he landed in Tinian while attempting to warn Quiroga of

19154-748: The rebels soon returned, sieging the fort for weeks and making three determined charges in an attempt to breach Spanish lines. Quiroga lost four soldiers in the fighting, while the Chamorro had "considerable losses." At this point, the Spanish force numbered 35, from the original 75 that had begun their campaign. Quiroga eventually was able to sneak down to the shore and take sakmans back to Guam in November 1683. The third siege of Hagåtña had lasted for four months when Quiroga arrived. There had been intense fighting in late July and August and at least five Filipino soldiers who had married Chamorro women had deserted. The injured Governor Espana had become indecisive and it

19311-528: The reduction of the north. In September 1698, 12 Spanish soldiers and a fleet of 112 Chamorro sakmans sailed to Gani. Awed by the size of the force, the people of Gani agreed to do whatever the Spanish desired. 1,900 residents of Gani were relocated, some temporarily to Saipan, before final settlement in southern Guam in 1699. The completion of this process was the final phase of violence and villagization that had begun 29 years earlier. Northern Mariana Islands The Northern Mariana Islands , officially

19468-426: The refugees could not get food or water, before finally assaulting the island directly. Several defenders were killed and some who expected to be executed threw themselves off the cliffs, but none resisted once the Spanish force reached high ground. Several people implicated in the murder of a priest were executed. Quiroga pronounced that all the people of Tinian must relocate to Guam. Some of the people of Tinian fled to

19625-537: The religious practices of Chamorro culture, people had the skulls of deceased family members placed in baskets in places of honor in their homes. The Chamorros believed that this allowed their deceased to have a place to stay and often sought the guidance of their ancestors and favors from them in their daily endeavors. The missionaries told the Chamorros that their ancestors (including parents and grandparents) were burning in hell because they had not been baptized as Christians." The destruction of venerated ancestral skulls

19782-465: The rules because some hoped "to ingratiate themselves with the Spaniards, others to achieve pardon for their crimes, and all of them hoping for a reward." These new incentives soon resulted in the turning in of dozens of the desired "criminals", sometimes killing them before turning in their heads as proof. In January 1679, Ignacio Hinete killed three people in Tarragui who had been involved in earlier unrest. Hinete notified Salas to send someone to pick up

19939-422: The savior of the mission. As well as a new commander, 20 additional Spanish troops arrived on Guam in 1675. In December 1675, a Jesuit and two lay mission helpers were killed at Ritidian after scolding a group of young men trying to get into the girls' dormitory. The group of men at Ritidian further burned all the mission buildings in the village, though the Spaniards record that the older villagers disapproved of

20096-436: The siege, San Vitores requested more troops and redoubled his missionary efforts towards the northern islands. However, San Vitores appeared to believe that the mere presence of additional soldiers would ensure peace. The Spaniards did not make any efforts to punish or detain those responsible for the attacks on missionaries or siege of Hagatña. Released from prison, Hurao began traveling between villages to encourage opposition to

20253-409: The signing of the armistice. The last group of Japanese holdouts surrendered on Saipan on December 1, 1945. However, as mentioned, a group of about 30 held out until 1951 on Anahatan. The bizarre story has been the subject of several movies and writings, including The Saga of Anatahan . On a related note, on Guam, Japanese soldier Shoichi Yokoi , unaware that the war had ended, hid in a jungle cave in

20410-456: The sling and spear. Early European reports describe Chamorro warfare as highly disorganized, small scale, and triggered by minor disputes such as cut food trees. Battles typically lasted until the first death, whereupon the killer's family would offer a turtle shell or other items of value to the family of the warrior that died to reestablish peace. The Marianas were the first islands in the Pacific reached by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, though it

20567-490: The socially disruptive effects of militarization and forced catholicization were immediately visible, the two forces also worked hand in hand to destroy ancient Chamorro settlements and profoundly disrupt land use patterns." Wiecko also states: "Population estimates ranged from 35,000 to 60,000, with an estimated total Chamorro population throughout the Marianas between 40,000 and 100,000. Introduced diseases—especially smallpox, influenza, and tuberculosis—contributed to most of

20724-475: The soldiers have carried out among the Indians, and the other extortions, have been endless." Chamorro anger at the depredations of the garrison only grew over the years. With Guam pacified, the Spaniards turned their attention to control of the northern islands. In late 1680, Quiroga led a force to Rota. He captured several rebel leaders, who were later executed, and sent up to 150 refugees from Guam who had fled

20881-411: The soldiers were leaving for Hagåtña, they were attacked by a large force of armed men. Suddenly, a local man named Cheref appeared and offered to take the Spaniards away to safety in his sakman . After the Spaniards had boarded the sakman was well away from shore, Cheref and his men overturned the boat and attacked the Spaniards with spears and clubs. This incident would raise uncertainty about who among

21038-401: The south, burning the villages of Nagan and Hinca, which had been involved in the death of another Jesuit. Chamorros attempted to ambush the Spaniards as they approached Tachuch, near Merizo , but Esplana killed one Chamorro and then captured and executed the chief of Tachuch as a warning to others who might resist. The Jesuits were full of praise for their new military commander, who was seen as

21195-465: The southernmost island of the Marianas, and claimed the archipelago for Spain. The Spanish ships were met offshore by the native Chamorros, who delivered refreshments and then helped themselves to a small boat belonging to Magellan's fleet. This led to a cultural clash: in Chamorro tradition, little property was private, and taking something one needed, such as a boat for fishing, did not count as stealing. The Spanish did not understand this custom and fought

21352-445: The third siege of Hagåtña. Meanwhile, the warriors from Tinian and Saipan had combined forces to attack the force commanded by Quiroga on Saipan, who was forced to shelter in his partially constructed fort. Quiroga was sieged until November when he was able to escape and sail to Guam, where he lifted the siege of Hagåtña. The Spanish then conducted a series of campaigns against resisting villages on Guam and executing insurrectionists until

21509-651: The title Servant of God . Oscar Calvo , one of the primary figures in the reestablishment of the Catholic Church after the Japanese occupation of Guam , sought the beatification of San Vitores for many years. Calvo distributed copies of Alberto Risco 's 1970 The Apostle of the Marianas: The life, labors, and martyrdom of Ven. Diego Luis de San Vitores, 1627-1672 , translated from Italian to English, to raise awareness on Guam. He visited Spain to search for more information on San Vitores and eventually had

21666-501: The title maestre-de-campo , roughly the equivalent of a colonel. Ayhi then convinced the other major village chiefs to take the oaths of fealty given by Saravia on September 8, 1681. These chiefs were then deputized to represent the governor in regions around the island, and were subsequently tasked with being mayors and other officials for the Spanish administration. Saravia built new roads, taught new trades, and introduced new livestock, such as chicken and cattle. A significant problem of

21823-515: The traditional welcoming food of breadfruit , and even meeting them armed. The Spaniards blamed the hostility on rumors spread by a Chinese castaway named Choco on Saipan that the waters that the missionaries were using for baptism was poisoned. This story was plausible to those villages whose sole contact with the missionaries was the baptisms conducted on the deathly ill or newborn, who experience high mortality. Contemporary Spanish accounts state that Chamorros in areas that regularly interacted with

21980-481: The trench region, which goes to the maximum limit of the EEZ. The nature preserve aims to protect the unique marine life, which includes seabirds, sea turtles, unique coral reefs, and life around under-sea vents. The Marianas Trench includes the deepest ocean water on the planet, along with other underwater wonders, including a pool of liquid sulfur located at Daikoku, an underwater volcano. (see also Challenger Deep ) Guam

22137-411: The trial combined with the anger at the attempts to destroy ancestral shrines and undermine makanas to move the residents of Hagatña to open resistance. Hurao , a high-caste resident of the village, began to rally villagers to open resistance. In response to the threat, the Spaniards finally erected a wooden stockade with two towers. They were soon confronted by an estimated 2,000 Chamorro men, though

22294-579: The two boats used by the Spaniards were unable to brave rough weather. When Governor Saravia died in November 1683, Damián de Esplana, who had returned to Guam only a few months earlier, presented sealed orders appointing him the next governor. Esplana immediately ordered Quiroga north to conquer Tinian and Saipan. In March 1684, Quiroga's force of 76 Spanish soldiers and at least as many Chamorro allies left Hagåtña. They were welcomed on Tinian but encountered strong resistance at Saipan. Dozens of sakmans prevented an easy landing. One or two Saipanese warriors and

22451-437: The unrest back home. In April 1681, rebels from Inapsan who had burnt down their church and rectory fled to Rota. They were followed by Quiroga who, with local assistance, drove the rebels into the hills until most of them surrendered. The Spaniards then proceeded with the reduction of Rota, on the model of that already completed on Guam. In March 1682, a church and rectory was constructed at Sosa (modern day Songsong ), and then

22608-404: The uprising and the other on Rota from rebels who had sailed from Tinian. On Saipan, Quiroga was unaware of the rebellion until the seventeen soldiers he had left on Tinian were killed and their boats burnt. A combined force of Chamorro warriors from Tinian and Saipan launched an attack, driving Quiroga's force into the unfinished fort. Rallying, his counterattack forced the enemy to flee. However,

22765-460: The way, he and his Filipino catechist Pedro Calungsod stopped in the village of Tumon to look for a mission helper who had fled at word of the new violence. In Tumon, San Vitores met Matå'pang , a local elder whom San Vitores had converted after nursing him to health from a serious illness, but had since turned away from the Spaniards. Infuriated at San Vitores' offer to baptize his daughter, Matå'pang said that San Vitores would do better to baptize

22922-427: Was a 1698 military expedition against the eight small islands at northern end of the Marianas . The population there was resettled on Guam in 1699, completing the villagization of rebellious populations and Spanish consolidation of the Marianas. The ancient Chamorros were organized into matrilineal extended family groups, stratified into three hierarchical classes. Chamorro seamanship and the sakman , also known as

23079-459: Was ambushed and speared in the leg as he went to baptize a dying man. Five days later, two of the men accompanying Fr. Morales were killed when Chamorros transporting them on sakmans suddenly attacked them with machetes. On Guam, Fr. Luis de Medina was badly beaten when visiting one of the remote villages on Guam. The missionaries found that distant villages on Guam that had previous welcomed them were concealing paths with brush, refusing to give them

23236-400: Was defended by 40 Spanish militia equipped with 18 muskets. The siege largely followed the form of the first siege: the Chamorros ritualistically lined up outside musket range to taunt their foe. The Spaniards periodically sallied forth, killing one or two Chamorros before the besieging force fled to the hills, only to return and reestablish the siege. The Chamorros destroyed a cornfield that fed

23393-489: Was enclosed in a wall, first wood but rebuild with stone, with two gates facing the sea and interior hills. Outside of Hagåtña, the Spanish policy of reducción concentrated Chamorros in six towns of about 1,000 residents each: Pago , Agat, Inarajan , Umatac, Inapsan, and Mapupun. These towns each had a church and were being built in orderly rows at Spanish direction. Still, the Spaniards burnt houses outside these villages to discourage unauthorized settlement, thereby creating

23550-605: Was followed by a second migration from the Caroline Islands by the first millennium AD, and a third migration from Island Southeast Asia (likely the Philippines or eastern Indonesia ) by 900 AD. After their first contact with Spaniards, the islanders eventually became known as the Chamorros , a Spanish word similar to Chamori , the name of the Indigenous caste system's higher division. The ancient people of

23707-520: Was incapable of bringing the rest of the Marianas under the control of the mission. Nevertheless, by 1689 the number of Spanish troops had increased to 160, while the Marianas mission reached its maximum of twenty Jesuits. Meanwhile, the Chamorro population of Guam continued to be wracked by foreign-introduced disease; in 1689, the pre-San Vitores population of 35,000 to 50,000 had fallen to below 10,000. Esplana died in August 1694 and Quiroga used his position as interim governor to finally complete conquering

23864-431: Was likely only because of the support of the pro-Spanish Chamorro militia that the garrison had held out against the far larger besieging force. However, Quiroga had a fearsome reputation and the rebels abandoned the siege at his arrival. For months afterwards, Quiroga pursued the rebels, burning more villages and executing prisoners, until an exhausted peace was once again established. The latest spasm of violence resulted in

24021-441: Was making a third of their expected salary. This resulted in low morale, attempts to find money by whatever means possible, and general indiscipline. While the Jesuits had been grateful for the additional soldiers in the early hostilities, they became increasingly appalled by the soldiers behavior. By 1680, soldiers had moved on from seducing girls at the mission school to raping village women. One Jesuit in 1680 wrote, "The thefts that

24178-514: Was not established until June 15, 1668, when Father Diego Luis de San Vitores landed at the village of Hagåtña , in charge of a force of 31, including five other Jesuit missionaries. Few of the Spanish force were skilled with the firearms they brought, as San Vitores had been impressed by the gentleness and peacefulness of the Chamorros in an earlier visit. He argued that bringing experienced soldiers would create more conflict: "Experience has shown that soldiers do not content themselves with defense of

24335-599: Was not until 1565 that Miguel López de Legazpi formally declared Spanish sovereignty over the Mariana Islands. Following Legazpi's visit, Guam became a provisioning stop for the lucrative Manila galleons trade between Acapulco and Manila , which carried silver from New Spain to trade for silk and porcelain from China . However, Guam was a minor piece of the vast Spanish Empire and few galleons even made port, as they were content to furl their sails offshore long enough to trade for water and food with Chamorros who came out on their sakman . A permanent Spanish presence

24492-431: Was split by a sword and heart pierced by a spear. In response, the Spaniards launched a punitive attack on Tumon, burning several houses and sakmans . However, the Spanish column was attacked on both flanks as it waded through the waters of Tumon Bay , losing three soldiers to poison spears. Two Chamorro dead were counted. A month later, Hurao was captured and executed by one of the Spanish militia. Fr. Francisco Solano,

24649-697: Was the strongest typhoon known to hit the islands. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) personnel deployed to both Tinian and Saipan ahead of the storm. U.S. President Donald Trump declared an emergency for the Northern Islands on October 24, 2018. The Northern Mariana Islands, together with Guam to the south, compose the Mariana Islands archipelago. The southern islands are limestone , with level terraces and fringing coral reefs. The northern islands are volcanic, with active volcanoes on several islands, including Anatahan , Pagan , and Agrihan . The volcano on Agrihan, Mount Agrihan , has

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