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88-597: The Tohono Oʼodham Nation governs the Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation , a major reservation located in southern Arizona . It encompasses portions of three counties: Pima , Pinal , and Maricopa in the United States. Tohono O'odham territory extends into the Mexican state of Sonora . The Tohono Oʼodham tribal government and most of the people have rejected the common exonym Papago since

176-592: A field hockey -like game called toka which is still enjoyed and is a frequent school sport on the modern reservation. Though they shared a linguistic root with the Pima, and could understand the languages of nearby tribes, such tribes were considered distant cousins at best. Even within the Oʼodham there were linguistic and cultural differences that led to the groups being only loosely united. Different groups had different origin stories, linguistic quirks, and appearances. Where

264-485: A Mexican citizen and a member of the Tohono Oʼodham tribe. As advocacy for the border wall continues to grow, inspections and securities along these boundaries have heightened, limiting tribal members' access to resources beyond the border. The cultural resources of the Tohono Oʼodham are threatened—particularly the language—but are stronger than those of many other aboriginal groups in the United States. Every February

352-475: A distance. Marcos described it as "very pretty" and "more extensive than Mexico [City]". The Indians who accompanied him assured Marcos that this was "the smallest of the seven cities". Then, following Mendoza's instructions, he raised a large pile of stones, placed a cross upon it and took possession of the discovered lands in the name of the Spanish Crown. After staking claim to the country, Marcos made

440-507: A generally peaceful people. They rarely, if ever, initiated conflict, and got along well with most neighboring tribes. The exception was the Apache , who were frequent raiders of the Oʼodham and other tribes. The Apache were to the east and northeast of the Oʼodham, and had probably moved into the area sometime in the 15th century. The Apache had limited interest in farming, and preferred to raid neighboring troops for supplies. The eastern Oʼodham,

528-542: A great upset among the Sonoran natives in the Marcos party. Many had kinsmen who were apparently killed along with Estevanico. When Marcos tried to calm them, they retorted "How can we be quiet...knowing that three hundred of our fathers, our sons, and our brothers...have been killed?" Some blamed Marcos for the deaths of their family members and threatened to kill him. In hopes of regaining their support, Marcos distributed all

616-449: A group of Indians ahead to explore the country for fifty or sixty leagues to the north. Estevanico was instructed to communicate by sending back crosses, where the size of the cross indicated the importance of his discoveries. Four days later, a cross arrived that was as tall as a person. Estevanico had heard reports of seven large and wealthy cities in a land to the north called Cíbola. The messengers urged Marcos to come at once and meet with

704-471: A hasty retreat. He found that the local Indians who were once friendly had turned hostile. He provides few details of his return trip except to say that he was "more full of fear than food". Marcos reached Mexico City in August 1539 and turned over a copy of his report to his Franciscan superiors on 26 August. On 2 September, Marcos personally delivered his report to Viceroy Mendoza. Marcos de Niza's expedition

792-473: A letter being written. For years, rumours had circulated of wealthy civilizations to the north of Mexico. In 1536 Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and his three companions reached Mexico City as the only survivors of the Narváez expedition . Their account included references to possible cities in the north where great wealth might be found. Inspired by these reports, Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza decided to send

880-563: A new school. The new boarding school opened in 1908; it has a separate post office, known as the Escuela Post Office. Sometimes this name was used in place of the Tucson Indian School. By the mid-1930s, the Tucson Indian School covered 160 acres, had 9 buildings, and was capable of educating 130 students. In 1940, about 18 different tribes made up the population of students at the school. With changing ideas about

968-416: A person lived was the best indicator of which group they belonged to, more so than the other differences. As of the 1700s, when Europeans began to categorize the tribes, there were probably at least six groups. The actual number of groups has varied by author. The following categorization is from Eric Winston's 1994 textbook on the Oʼodham, and includes seven groups, along with some subgroups. The Oʼodham were

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1056-415: A population of 25,000, with 20,000 living on its Arizonan reservation lands. The nation is governed by a three branch system. The executive which includes a chairman and vice-chairman, who are elected by eligible adult members of the nation. According to their constitution, elections are conducted under a complex formula intended to ensure that the rights of small Oʼodham communities are protected, as well as

1144-647: A portion of its people's original Sonoran desert lands. It is organized into eleven districts. The land lies in three counties of the present-day state of Arizona : Pima , Pinal , and Maricopa . The reservation's land area is 11,534.012 square kilometres (4,453.307 sq mi), the third-largest Indian reservation area in the United States (after the Navajo Nation and the Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation ). The 2000 census reported 10,787 people living on reservation land. The tribe's enrollment office tallies

1232-573: A result, the desert people preserved their traditions largely intact for generations. The Tohono Oʼodham share linguistic and cultural roots with the closely related Akimel Oʼodham (People of the River), historically known as Pima, whose lands lie just south of present-day Phoenix , along the lower Gila River . The ancestors of both the Tohono Oʼodham and the Akimel Oʼodham resided along the major rivers of southern Arizona. Ancient pictographs adorn

1320-484: A rock wall that juts up out of the desert near the Baboquivari Mountains . On the nature of the Oʼodham, Eric Winston writes: The Oʼodham were not a people in a political sense. Instead, their sense of belonging came from similar traditions and ways of life, language and related legends, and experiences shared in surviving in a beautiful but not entirely hospitable land. Debates surround the origins of

1408-495: A set of food systems programs that contribute to public health, cultural revitalization, and economic development. It has started a cafe that serves traditional foods. The Tohono Oʼodham community has made efforts to combat future issues by attempting to rehabilitate the systems the tribe had in place before government intervention. The Indigenous group has been advocating for the restoration of their water privileges so that they will be able to effectively produce traditional crops for

1496-540: A small reconnaissance expedition northward in hopes of confirming the rumours. When the three surviving Spaniards from the Narváez expedition declined to lead the effort, Mendoza appointed Marcos de Niza as the leader and ordered Estevanico , the African slave who was the fourth companion of the survivors, to serve as a guide. Marco had been recommended by his superior, Fray Antonio de Ciudad Rodrigo , who noted that he

1584-482: A time of need that you would repay the debt when you could. Despite a shared language and heritage, the Oʼodham were only loosely connected across their lands. Loyalty laid with the village, not the people. However, the Oʼodham generally got along well with neighbors. They regularly gathered with nearby villages, and would even partner with them in times of conflict against outsider tribes. Gatherings for races, trade, socialization, and gossip were frequent events. Gambling

1672-462: A treaty with the federal government, but the Oʼodham experienced challenges common to other nations. As Oʼodham communal lands were allocated to households and some "surplus" sold to non-Native Americans under the Dawes Act of 1888, a variety of religious groups entered the territory. Presbyterian missionaries built schools and missions there, vying with Roman Catholics and Mormons to convert

1760-590: Is an Indian reservation of the Tohono Oʼodham Nation in Arizona , United States. The reservation had a 2020 census population of 9,561. It has an area of 4,340.984 square miles (11,243.098 km ), 97.48 percent of the Tohono Oʼodham Nation's total area. The reservation encompasses parts of central Pima , southwestern Pinal , and southeastern Maricopa Counties . The land is also the site of

1848-435: Is bundled together to make a harvesting tool called a kuibit . They then reduce the freshly harvested fruit into a thick syrup through several hours of boiling, as the fresh fruit does not keep for long. Four kilograms (9 pounds) of fruit will yield about 1 liter ( 1 ⁄ 4 U.S. gallon) of syrup. Copious volumes of fruit are harvested; an example harvest in 1929 yielded 45,000 kg (99,000 lb) among 600 families. At

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1936-403: Is very long, up to 264 days in places. Summer temperatures are extreme, reaching up to 120 °F (49 °C) for weeks at a time. The Tohono Oʼodham migrated between summer and winter homes, usually moving to follow the water. They built their summer homes along alluvial plains , where they channeled summer rains onto fields they were cultivating. Some dikes and catchment basins were built, as

2024-481: The Gulf of California . The frontiers of their territory would have been shared to an extent with neighboring tribes. These lands are characterized by wide plains bordered by tall mountains. Water is scarce but is believed to have been more plentiful before European colonization. Their practices of cattle grazing and well drilling decreased stream flows. Localized natural springs provided water in some areas. In some areas,

2112-535: The Heard Museum and has contributed cover art to Arizona Highways magazine and University of Arizona Press books. Chana illustrated books by Tucson writer Byrd Baylor and created murals for Tohono Oʼodham Nation buildings. In 2004, the Heard Museum awarded Danny Lopez its first heritage award, recognizing his lifelong work sustaining the desert people's way of life. At the National Museum for

2200-501: The Santa Cruz River , from early pioneer Sam Hughes. The new facility opened in 1888, with 54 boys and girls. At the new semi-religious boarding school, boys learned rural trades like carpentry and farming, while girls were taught sewing and similar domestic skills of the period. In 1890, additional buildings were completed but the school was still too small for the demand, and students had to be turned away. To raise funds for

2288-754: The Tucson Indian School . This boarding school was founded in 1886, when T.C. Kirkwood, superintendent of the board of national missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States , asked the Tucson Common Council for land near where the University of Arizona would be built. The Common Council granted the Board of Home Missions a 99-year lease on land at $ 1 a year. The Board purchased 42 acres (17 ha) of land on

2376-427: The 1980s. They call themselves Tohono Oʼodham, meaning "desert people". The Akimel O'odham , a neighboring tribe, referred to them as Ba꞉bawĭkoʼa , meaning "eating tepary beans ". The Spanish colonizers learned that name from the Pima and transliterated it as Pápago , in their pronunciation. Anglo settlers in the area adopted that term. The historical lands of the Tohono Oʼodham stretched over much of what are now

2464-655: The American Indian (NMAI), the Tohono O'odham were represented in the founding exhibition and Lopez blessed the exhibit. The Tohono Oʼodham children were required to attend Indian boarding schools, designed to teach them the English language and assimilate them to the mainstream European-American ways. According to historian David Leighton, of the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, the Tohono Oʼodham attended

2552-529: The Apache 'enemy' is ob. The Oʼodham were settled agricultural people who raised crops. According to their history, they knew the Apache would raid when they ran short on food, or hunting was bad. The relationship between the Oʼodham and Apache was especially strained after 1871 when 92 Oʼodham joined Mexicans and Anglo-Americans and killed an estimated 144 Apache in the Camp Grant massacre . All but eight of

2640-694: The Arizona State Museum on the campus of the University of Arizona, has undertaken a documentary history of the Oʼodham, offering translated colonial documents that discuss Spanish relations with the Oʼodham in the 17th and 18th centuries. Oʼodham musical and dance activities lack "grand ritual paraphernalia that call for attention" and grand ceremonies such as pow-wows . Instead, they wear muted white clay. Oʼodham songs are accompanied by hard wood rasps and drumming on overturned baskets , both of which lack resonance and are "swallowed by

2728-875: The Franciscan order in Nice, he followed customs and became known by his first name and place of origin. He is known in French as Frère Marc de Nice and in Italian as Marco da Nizza, but in the service of Spain, he came to be known as Fray Marcos de Niza. His surname is unknown. In 1530, Marcos travelled to Spain and then went on to the Americas. The details of his early travels in the New World are unclear. He may have first landed in Nicaragua but then soon joined Pizarro for

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2816-453: The Nation's website. Like other tribes, the Tohono Oʼodham felt land pressures from American ranchers, settlers, and the railroads. Documentation was poor, and many members did not leave their lands in a written will. John F. Trudell, a US attorney general assistant recorded an Oʼodham man declaring "I do not know anything about a land grant. The Mexicans never had any land to give us. From

2904-406: The Oʼodham to their faith. Major farmers established the cotton industry, initially employing many Oʼodham as agricultural workers. Under the U.S. federal Indian policy of the late 19th and early 20th century, the government required native children to attend Indian boarding schools . They were forced to use English, practice Christianity, and give up much of their tribal cultures in an attempt by

2992-619: The Oʼodham. Claims that the Oʼodham moved north as recently as 300 years ago compete with claims that the Hohokam , who left the Casa Grande Ruins , are their ancestors. In the Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library are materials collected by a Franciscan friar who worked among the Tohono Oʼodham. These include scholarly volumes and monographs. The Office of Ethnohistorical Research, located at

3080-563: The Quinlan and Baboquivari Mountains , which include Kitt Peak, and the Kitt Peak National Observatory and telescopes, as well as Baboquivari Peak . These astronomical sites are under lease from the Tohono Oʼodham Nation. The lease was approved by the council in the 1950s, for a one-time payment of US$ 25,000 plus $ 10 per acre per year. When Spaniards first encountered the tribe in 1694, they made note of one of

3168-827: The Sobapuris, bore the brunt of Apache attacks. The original Oʼodham diet consisted of regionally available wild game , insects, and plants. Through foraging , Oʼodham ate a variety of regional plants, such as: ironwood seed , honey mesquite , hog potato , and organ-pipe cactus fruit . While the Southwestern United States does not have an ideal climate for cultivating crops, Oʼodham cultivated crops of white tepary beans , peas, and Spanish watermelons. They hunted pronghorn antelope, gathered hornworm larvae , and trapped pack rats for sources of meat. Preparation of foods included steaming plants in pits and roasting meat on an open fire. Saguaro cactus fruit

3256-586: The US. The goal was to make the Indians into "real" Americans, but the boarding schools generally offered training only for low-level domestic and agricultural labor, typical of jobs available in rural areas. "Assimilation" was the official policy, but full participation was not the goal. Boarding school students were supposed to function within the segregated society of the United States as economic laborers, not leaders. The Tohono Oʼodham have retained many traditions into

3344-542: The city of Nice in the Duchy of Savoy . Marcos led the first Spanish expedition to explore what is now the American Southwest. His report of finding a "beautiful city", "more extensive than that of Mexico [City]", induced Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza to organize a large-scale entrada under the leadership of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado . Marcos served as a guide for this expedition but when they failed to find

3432-432: The city of Cibola. Some theories state that Marcos simply would not have had enough time actually to reach Cibola. Another scholar came to the conclusion that he must have turned back way before he even came close to seeing the city based on the timeline and political complexities of exploration. Yet other researchers and scholars believe he did reach the long-lost city of Cibola. In the 1920s Matthew E. Bellew announced

3520-568: The conquest of the Incas. According to Bartolomé de las Casas , Marcos later testified to many Spanish atrocities he had witnessed in Peru. He also worked in Guatemala and accompanied Pedro de Alvarado to Ecuador. Documents show that he was back in Guatemala by 1536 where he testified in a trial involving Alvarado. Meanwhile, his superiors must have been pleased with his work for he progressed through

3608-463: The dead were women and children. The Oʼodham also captured 29 Apache children, whom they sold into slavery in Mexico. Conflict with European settlers encroaching on their lands eventually resulted in the Oʼodham and the Apache finding common interests. Little of early Oʼodham history is known. That recorded by Europeans reflects their biases. The first European exploration and recording of Oʼodham lands

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3696-444: The desert floor". Dancing features skipping and shuffling quietly in bare feet on dry dirt, the dust raised being believed to rise to atmosphere and assist in forming rain clouds. Society focused on the family, and each member had specific roles to play. Women were in charge of food preparation and also gathered the bulk of food, although all members helped. Older girls in the family would be in charge of fetching water each morning,

3784-533: The desert people had embraced the Catholicism of the Spanish conquistadors . Tohono Oʼodham villages resisted such change for hundreds of years. During the 1660s and in 1750s, two major rebellions rivaled in scale the 1680 Pueblo Rebellion . Their armed resistance prevented the Spanish from increasing their incursions into the lands of Pimería Alta . The Spanish retreated to what they called Pimería Baja . As

3872-409: The discovery of a petroglyph on his land near Phoenix that appeared to have been left by Marcos de Niza. The inscription, written in Spanish, translates to “Fray Marcos de Niza crowned all of New Mexico at his expense in the year of 1539.” Most contemporary historians quickly called it a fraud, pointing out that the reference to "New Mexico" was an anachronism in 1539 and also noting that the expedition

3960-545: The duty would fall to the wife if there were no daughters. Women also wove baskets, and made pottery, such as ollas . Men performed many of the farming tasks, and hunted. Older men would hunt larger game like bighorn sheep , younger men and boys hunted small game. Most communities had a medicine man , a usually male position. Decisions were made by men in a communal fashion, with elders holding prominence. Children were free to play until age six, around which time they began to learn their roles. Grandparents and older siblings were

4048-575: The earliest times our fathers have owned land which was given to them by the Earth's prophet." Because the Oʼodham lived on public lands or had no documentation of ownership, their holdings were threatened by white cattle herders in the 1880s. However, they used their history of cooperation with the government in the Apache Wars to bargain for land rights. Today, Oʼodham lands are made up of multiple reservations: The Tohono Oʼodham Community Action (TOCA)

4136-470: The ecclesiastical hierarchy from comisario to custodio and then provincia of the Mexican province. In 1537, Marcos wrote to Archbishop Juan de Zumárraga in Mexico City to complain about the atrocities he had witnessed in Peru. Zumárraga requested his presence in Mexico City and suggested that Marcos write a report to the king in an effort to prevent further cruelties. There is no record of such

4224-409: The education of tribal children, the federal government began to support education where the children lived with their families. By August 1953, it had no grades lower than 7th grade. In 1960, the school closed its doors. The site was developed as Santa Cruz Plaza, just southwest of Pueblo Magnet High School . The Tohono Oʼodham Nation within the United States occupies a reservation that incorporates

4312-416: The end of the harvest, each family would contribute a small amount of syrup to a communal stock that would be fermented by the medicine man. This was cause for rainmaking celebrations. Stories would be told, there was much dancing, and songs would be sung. Each man would drink some of the saguaro wine. The resulting intoxicated state was seen as holy, and any dreams it brought on were considered portentous. This

4400-462: The expedition began they encountered one of their first native villages, Petatlan, where Brother Onorato fell ill and was left behind to recover. As the two remaining explorers ventured inland, they came to a village called Vacapa where Marcos celebrated Easter mass. The natives received the priest warmly and referred to him as Satoya , or "man from heaven". While in Vacapa, Marcos sent Estevanico and

4488-578: The first and current church building were constructed by Oʼodham. The second building was constructed under direction of Franciscan priests, during a mission period from 1783 to 1797. The oldest European building in present-day Arizona, the mission is considered a premier example of Spanish colonial design. It is one of many missions built in the Southwest by the Spanish on what was then the northern frontier of their colony. Tourists sometimes assume that

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4576-461: The gifts and trade goods he had been carrying and asked only that he be allowed to proceed to Cibola. A few of the Sonorans finally agreed to accompany him on a secret reconnaissance of the city. Around 5 June 1539, Marcos came within sight of the city. Instead of risking his life and forfeiting the opportunity to report the information, Marcos decided not to go into Cibola but only observe it from

4664-543: The government to assimilate the children of various tribes into the American mainstream. The current tribal government, established in the 1930s under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, reflects years of commercial, missionary, and federal intervention. While the federal government encouraged tribes to reestablish their governments, it approved models based on the electoral system and structure of

4752-537: The interests of the larger communities and families. The legislative branch which includes the tribal council which is made up two representatives from each of the twelve districts. The third branch is the Judicial which includes five judges. present chairman is Ned Norris Jr , Vice Chairwoman is Wavalene Saunders, Legislative Chairman is Timothy Joaquin Gu Achi, and Chief Judge is Donald Harvey. This can all be found on

4840-661: The jurisdictions of southern Arizona and Northern Mexico, across most of the Sonoran Desert . In the south, their land abutted against that of the Seris and Opata peoples. To the east, they ranged to at least the San Miguel River valley. The people may have migrated further east in seasonal travel. The Gila River represents the northern limits. To the west, their lands extended to the Colorado River and

4928-436: The most frequent teachers, as parents tended to be very busy. Marriages were generally arranged by parents, or if the parents had died, older siblings. Since individual villages tended to be closely related, marriages were generally between villages, as close relatives were not allowed to marry. A wife would generally move to the village of her husband, but exceptions could be made if the wife's village needed more help. Polygamy

5016-415: The nation holds the annual Sells Rodeo and Parade in its capital. Sells District rodeo has been an annual event since being founded in 1938. It celebrates traditional frontier skills of riding and managing cattle. In the visual arts, Michael Chiago and the late Leonard Chana gained widespread recognition for their paintings and drawings of traditional Oʼodham activities and scenes. Chiago has exhibited at

5104-519: The native cities were grander than Mexico City , which led to the Coronado expedition . Considerable evidence suggests that, before the late 17th century, the Oʼodham and Apache were friendly and engaged in the exchange of goods and marriage partners. Oʼodham oral history , however, suggests that intermarriages resulted instead from raiding between the two tribes. It was typical for women and children to be taken captive in raids, to be used as slaves by

5192-543: The newly appointed governor of the frontier province Nueva Galicia at the northern edge of New Spain. By 15 December, they were in Compostela, the provincial capital of Nueva Galicia. Once there, Coronado recruited nearly 100 Indians from the region to join the Marcos expedition. They proceeded north along the coast until reaching Culiacan, the northernmost Spanish outpost. Marcos and his party left Culiacan on March 7, 1539, and began their exploration. A week or so after

5280-537: The original crops that the Indigenous group produced, such as tepary beans, squash, and the buds of cholla cactus, were items that could have aided in combating the diabetes crisis within the community. These foods possessed nutrients that would have helped normalize blood sugar and minimize the impact of diabetes. However, as a result of government intervention, many of these traditional foods were lost. A local nonprofit, Tohono Oʼodham Community Action (TOCA), has built

5368-490: The people also relied on tinajas , or potholes, that were filled with rainwater in the mountains. Rains are intensely seasonal in the Sonoran Desert, with much rainfall occurring in late summer monsoons . Monsoon storms are generally fierce and produce flooding. The remainder of rainfall generally falls in winter and is more gentle. Snows are extremely rare, and winters have a few days below freezing. The growing season

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5456-490: The school and support its expansion, its superintendent entered into a contract with the city of Tucson to grade and maintain streets. While officially called the Tucson Indian Training School, "any person of either sex, regardless of race or color", who showed "promise of development into a Christian leader or citizen and whose educational needs may, in the judgement of the school, be better served by

5544-491: The school than by another available resource" was eligible for admission. In 1903, Jose Xavier Pablo, who later went on to become a leader in the Tohono Oʼodham Nation , graduated from the school. Three years later, the school bought the land they were leasing from the city of Tucson and sold it at a significant profit. In 1907, they purchased land just east of the Santa Cruz River, near present-day Ajo Way and built

5632-553: The scouting party. Despite instructions from Marcos to wait for him, Estevanico and his party hurried forward, while Marcos travelled at a more leisurely pace, stopping often to rest, speak with the locals, and perform religious ceremonies. After several days, Marcos came upon a pueblo where the people dressed in cotton robes and wore turquoise jewellery. They claimed to know about Cibola, a wealthy land with buildings ten stories high. Marcos continued to follow Estevanico who occasionally sent back messengers bearing large crosses. Along

5720-464: The soil and the availability of water. In addition, Marcos was to inquire about the proximity of the ocean in the hope that a gulf or inlet might be found to provide access to the interior. Finally, the viceroy emphasized that Marcos "always try to travel as safely as possible" and "avoid giving [the natives] any cause to take action against your person". The expedition left Mexico City in the autumn of 1538, accompanied by Francisco Vázquez de Coronado ,

5808-544: The tribe's inhabited villages called Batki , a site that was abandoned around 1850. Batki was in what is now the Sells District of the Tohono O'odham Nation. The telephone area code for the Tohono Oʼodham Reservation is 520. Fray Marcos de Niza Marcos de Niza , OFM (or Marco da Nizza ; c.  1495  – 25 March 1558) was a Franciscan friar and missionary from

5896-515: The tribe's water source, preventing the Indigenous group from being able to produce traditional crops. This resulted in the widespread trend of type 2 diabetes among members of the tribe. The adaptation of a processed food diet caused the presence of type 2 diabetes to rise at alarming rates, with nearly 60 percent of the adult population in the tribe facing this disease and 75 percent of children expected to contract this disease in their lifetime. Children are also at risk for childhood obesity. Many of

5984-420: The tribe. Moreover, even in tribal schools, such as those in the local Baboquivari Unified School District, the quality of lunch programs is being reassessed in order to bring a larger emphasis of the need for healthier food options. The Tohono Oʼodham Nation is one of the only Indigenous groups to offer tribal members access to medical treatment in the United States. Requirements for this enrollment include being

6072-505: The twenty-first century, and still speak their language . Since the late 20th century, however, U.S. mass culture has penetrated and in some cases eroded Oʼodham traditions as their children adopt new trends in technology and other practices. Beginning in the 1960s, government intervention in the tribe's agricultural cultivation caused the Tohono Oʼodham tribe members to shift from a traditional plant-based diet to one that favored foods high in fat and calories. The government began to close off

6160-484: The victors. Often women married into the tribe in which they were held captive and assimilated under duress. Both tribes thus incorporated "enemies" and their children into their cultures. The San Xavier District is the site of Mission San Xavier del Bac , the "White Dove of the Desert". This is a major tourist attraction near Tucson . The mission was founded in 1700 by Jesuit missionary and explorer Eusebio Kino . Both

6248-448: The way, Marcos attracted a group of native followers who accompanied him on the journey to Cibola. These companions reinforced the idea that a great city was ahead of them. Sometime in late May, Marcos encountered two men from Estevanico's party. Bloody from wounds and greatly agitated, they brought news that Estevanico and his men had been attacked by the inhabitants of Cibola and many were killed, including Estevanico. The report caused

6336-402: The wealth they expected, Coronado blamed Marcos, called him a liar and sent the friar back to Mexico in disgrace. Marcos remains a controversial historical figure and historians have argued without resolution over the veracity of his report and the itinerary of his expedition. Almost nothing is known about the background of Marcos de Niza. He was born around 1495 and, as his name indicates, he

6424-557: Was a common recreational event, with men playing a game with sticks similar to dice, and women playing a game which required tossing painted sticks. They would bet trinkets such as shells or beads, as well as valuables such as blankets and mats. Betting also occurred on races, which were the most important sport. Girls were already generally good runners due to being water fetchers, and all members needed to be able to run to escape danger or attacks. Day long races were popular events, and courses would be 10–15 mi (16–24 km). Women played

6512-595: Was a pious priest, familiar with "cosmography and navigation" and capable of leading a journey of discovery. In addition to Estevanico, a lay Franciscan friar, Onorato was assigned to the expedition, as well as a half-dozen Indians whom Marco had been teaching the rudiments of Spanish and Christianity. The Indians were natives of Sinaloa in northern Mexico and it was hoped they could serve as translators and guides. The viceroy provided Marcos with written instructions, telling him to take careful note of everything he encounters, including Indian tribes, flora and fauna, fertility of

6600-439: Was allowed. Although women had little choice in whom they married, they could choose to leave their marriage if unhappy; they would then return to their village and a new marriage would be arranged. Society was intensely communal, and there were few positions of authority. Hunters shared their catches with the entire village. Food and supplies were shared with those who needed it. It was expected that if you had been given things in

6688-455: Was an especially important food. The Tohono Oʼodham use long sticks to harvest the fruits, which are then made into a variety of products including jams, syrups, and ceremonial wine. Tohono O'odham cooks made porridge from its edible seeds. The harvest begins in June; villages would travel to the saguaro stands for the duration of the harvest. A pair of saguaro ribs, about 6 m (20 ft) long,

6776-654: Was founded by current CEO and President Terrol Dew Johnson and co-founder Tristan Reader in 1996 on the basis of wanting to restore and re-integrate lost tribal traditions into the community. Located in Sells, Arizona, they originally started as a community garden and offered basketweaving classes. Now, the organization has expanded to having its own two farms, restaurant, and art gallery. Tohono O%CA%BCodham Indian Reservation 32°09′01″N 112°02′41″W  /  32.15028°N 112.04472°W  / 32.15028; -112.04472 The Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation ,

6864-405: Was from the city of Nice which was then part of the Duchy of Savoy . His ethnicity is disputed. Bandelier argues that many Frenchmen lived in Nice and believes that Marcos de Niza was one of them on the grounds that in a contemporary account, a letter written by Jeronimo Jimenez de San Esteban, Fray Marcos is described as "French by nationality". Other historians believe instead that Marcos de Niza

6952-525: Was gathered and set forth from Nueva Galicia in January 1540. Although he was now a high-ranking church official, Marcos served the expedition as a guide and led a small contingent of four Franciscans along with an entourage of assistants, servants, and slaves. They ended up finding only a group of Zuni villages, not the Seven Cities of Cibola. At this time, Marcos de Niza was pronounced a liar and he

7040-563: Was in fact an Italian, although still a subject of the Duke of Savoy, on the grounds that Nice was an Italian town; some state that he was a man of Piedmontese origins born or based in Nice. Discrepancies in the description of people from the Savoyard state are common in historiography, the Duchy of Savoy being an independent state at the crossroads of French and Italian cultures. When he joined

7128-467: Was made by crushing the pods of the trees), cholla cactus, and acorns. On the agricultural side of their diet, farmers focused on corn, squash, and tepary beans. It was not until more numerous Americans of Anglo-European ancestry began moving into the Arizona territory that the outsiders began to oppress the people's traditional ways. Unlike many tribes in the United States, the Tohono Oʼodham never signed

7216-581: Was made in the early 1530s by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca of the ill-fated Narváez expedition . Esteban the Moor passed through these lands, one of the four survivors of the Narvaez expedition. He returned later to lead Fray Marcos de Niza in an attempt to find the mythical Seven Cities of Gold . Esteban was killed by the Zuni when he dishonored their customs, and de Niza cut short his journey. De Niza wrote that

7304-488: Was most commonly used during summer monsoons. Mission Garden in Tucson, Arizona, includes O'odham areas that show foods and farming methods before and after European contact. This includes planting in basins that hold the monsoon rains. Traditional tribal foods were a combination of goods provided by nature and items they cultivated. From nature, the Tohono Oʼodham would consume rabbit, sap and flour from mesquite trees (flour

7392-500: Was not carried out "at his expense". One exception to the sceptics was historian and missionary Bonaventure Oblasser who cited the petroglyph to support his assertion that the expedition passed near Phoenix (most historians today believe that Marcos travelled through eastern Arizona along the San Pedro River). In 2009 an opportunity arose to apply new analytic techniques to test the age of the inscription. These tests confirmed

7480-602: Was returned to Mexico City. Even though his report never mentioned gold, the Spanish and Coronado expected to find riches. After being scapegoated, Marcos de Niza went back to Mexico City, where he held a very high position within the Franciscan leadership. He died in Mexico, City on 25 March 1558 due to persistent bad health. Controversy still follows Marcos de Niza. Scholars and historians have continued to analyze Marcos's story of his journey to Cibola to figure out what actually happened, developing many different theories questioning whether or not Marcos actually made it to or saw

7568-455: Was the only time that the Oʼodham drank alcohol during the year. Ak cin , known as "mouth of the wash", refers to the farming method in which farmers would monitor the weather for signs of storm cloud formations. The appearance of storm clouds signified that there was going to be a downpour of rain. Farmers would anticipate these moments and quickly prep their plantations for seeding as the rain began to flood their lands. This type of agriculture

7656-470: Was typical of Pima practices to the north. But most streams were not reliable enough for the people to build permanent canal systems. Winter villages were built in the mountains, to take advantage of more reliable water, and to enable the men to engage in hunting games. Historically, the Oʼodham were enemies of the nomadic Apache from the late 17th until the beginning of the 20th century. The Oʼodham word for

7744-554: Was viewed as a great success that seemed to confirm the extravagant rumours of a wealthy civilization beyond the northern frontier. In recognition of his accomplishments, Marcos was appointed provincial, or administrative head, of the Franciscan order in New Spain. In October 1539, Viceroy Mendoza ordered Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to organize and lead an expedition to "reconnoitre and pacify lands and new provincias ". A force of about 300 Spanish men-at-arms and 1500 native allies

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