99-619: Uttaradhyayana or Uttaradhyayana Sutra is one of the most important sacred books of Jains. It consists of 36 chapters, each of which deals with aspects of Jain doctrine and discipline. It is believed by some to contain the actual words of Bhagwan Mahavira (599/540 - 527/468 BCE) - the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism. This article related to a book about Jainism is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Mahavira Mahavira ( Devanagari : महावीर, Mahāvīra ), also known as Vardhamana (Devanagari: वर्धमान, Vardhamāna ),
198-408: A tirthankara . According to the texts, he was born as Marichi (the son of Bharata Chakravartin ) in a previous life. Yativṛṣabha 's Tiloya-paṇṇatti recounts nearly all the events of Mahavira's life in a form convenient for memorisation. Jinasena's Mahapurana (which includes the Ādi purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa ) was completed by his disciple, Gunabhadra , in the 8th century. In
297-695: A " Middle Way " between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification. Devadatta , a cousin of Gautama, caused a split in the Buddhist sangha by demanding more rigorous practices. The Buddhist movement chose a moderate ascetic lifestyle. This was in contrast to Jains, who continued the tradition of stronger austerity, such as fasting and giving away all property including clothes and thus going naked, emphasizing that complete dedication to spirituality includes turning away from material possessions and any cause for evil karma . The moderate ascetic precepts, states Collins, likely appealed to more people and widened
396-454: A "Middle Way" between the extremes of hedonism and self-mortification. The Brahmajāla Sutta mentions many śramaṇas with whom Buddha disagreed. For example, in contrast to Sramanic Jains whose philosophical premise includes the existence of an Atman (self, soul) in every being, Buddhist philosophy denies that there is any self or soul. This concept called Anatta (or Anatman ) is a part of Three Marks of existence in Buddhist philosophy,
495-575: A "very elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religions. Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami , his Ganadhara (chief disciple). The canonical scriptures are in twelve parts. Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300 BCE, according to Jain tradition, when
594-514: A Brahman woman before it was transferred by Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife. The embryo-transfer legend is not believed by adherents of the Digambara tradition. Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god Indra came from the heavens along with 56 digkumaries , anointed him, and performed his abhisheka (consecration) on Mount Meru . These events, illustrated in
693-399: A better rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation. According to Chakravarthi, these teachings help improve a person's quality of life. However, Dundas writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures" but by "continual self discipline":
792-591: A class within the Vedic context. The earliest known explicit use of the term śramaṇa is found in section 2.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka , a layer within the Yajurveda (~1000 BCE, a scripture of Hinduism). It mentions śramaṇa Rishis and celibate Rishis . Buddhist commentaries associate the word's etymology with the quieting ( samita ) of evil ( pāpa ) as in the following phrase from
891-456: A cleansing of the soul which leads to spiritual development and release. Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching that ahimsa is the supreme moral virtue. He taught that ahimsa covers all living beings, and injuring any being in any form creates bad karma (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and suffering). According to Mahatma Gandhi , Mahavira
990-435: A doctrine about the nature of reality and human existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or any other living being) as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps". Mahavira's Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the renunciant Jain communities, but each religion
1089-443: A fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions might injure other beings living in those states of matter. Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul is reborn after death in one of the trilok – the heavenly, hellish, or earthly realms of existence and suffering. Humans are reborn, depending on one's karma (actions) as a human, animal, element, microbe, or other form, on earth or in
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#17327913400021188-454: A heavenly (or hellish) realm. Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their previous life. Jinas who have reached Kevala Jnana ( omniscience ) are not reborn; they enter the siddhaloka , the "realm of the perfected ones". Mahavira is erroneously called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused it. Mahavira
1287-484: A key role in the progression towards self-realization. It serves as a stepping stone in the process of spiritual awakening, where the aspirant first becomes aware of their mistaken identity with the non-soul as their witness ( bhed-nasti ), and later become aware of the existence and true nature of the soul itself ( asti ). This process ultimately leads to the direct experience of the soul in a state of pure awareness, destroying karmic attachments. In Jainism, this knowledge
1386-488: A lion beneath him. His earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the North Indian city of Mathura , and is dated from between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. His birth is celebrated as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and his nirvana (liberation) and also his first shishya of Gautama Swami is observed by Jains as Diwali . Historically, Mahavira, who revived and preached Jainism in ancient India,
1485-754: A number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple rituals. Although the Kalpa Sūtra accounts of Mahavira's birth legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during the annual Paryushana festival, the same festival is observed by the Digambaras without the recitation. Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Ācārāṅga Sūtra , his parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha . Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married. The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry. The Śvētāmbara tradition believes that he
1584-453: A number of aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the truth"). Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way around. One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempt to express
1683-415: A part of the same cycle of birth and death. The goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the jiva from its karmic accumulation and enter the realm of the siddhas , souls who are liberated from rebirth. Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence of self awareness, self-cultivation and restraint from materialism. Mahavira also taught the concept of Bhedvijnān, or the science of distinguishing between
1782-542: A piece of burning camphor. Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra . Although a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra , the birth of a tirthankara is reckoned from the time he determines the causes of karma and pursues ratnatraya . Jain texts describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as
1881-462: A rival movement from outside these classes. In early Buddhism, the largest number of monastics were originally brahmins, and virtually all were recruited from the two upper classes of society – brahmins and kshatriyas . Ājīvika was founded in the 5th century BCE by Makkhali Gosala , as a śramaṇa movement and a major rival of early Buddhism and Jainism . Ājīvikas were organised renunciates who formed discrete communities. The Ājīvikas reached
1980-533: A severe famine in the Magadha kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it. These efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings, and an attempt was made in the 5th century CE to reconcile the differences. The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In
2079-439: A subject of dispute. Mahavira renounced his material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some accounts (thirty by others), lived an ascetic life for twelve and a half years in which he did not even sit for a time, attained Kevalgyana and then preached Dharma for thirty years. Where he preached has been a subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism: Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions. It
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#17327913400022178-416: A synonym for Digambara (a Jainism sect). However, other scholars state that this could not be the correct interpretation because it is inconsistent with the words that immediately follow, "wearing soil-hued garments". The context likely means that the poet is describing the "munis" as moving like the wind, their garments pressed by the wind. According to Olivelle, it is unlikely that the vātaraśana implies
2277-619: A true picture" of the Sramanic schools rivaling with Buddhism, These pre-Buddhist śrāmana movements were organized Sanghagani (orders of monks and ascetics), according to the Buddhist Samaññaphala Sutta . The six leaders above are described as a Sanghi (head of the order), Ganacariyo (teacher), Cirapabbajito (recluse), Yasassi and Neto (of repute and well known). Jain literature too mentions Pūraṇa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta. During
2376-458: A village or free town, take himself, or induce others to take, or allow others to take, what has not been given. The Ācāranga Sūtra gives three names of Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara , one of which was Śramaṇa : The Venerable ascetic Mahavira belonged to the Kasyapa gotra . His three names have thus been recorded by tradition: by his parents he was called Vardhamana , because he
2475-424: A woman is unable to fully practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a man. According to this view, women are seen as a threat to a monk's chastity. Mahavira had preached about men and women equality. The Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life with
2574-747: Is also known as a tirthankara . It is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that Mahavira lived in ancient India. According to the Digambara Uttarapurana text, Mahavira was born in Kundagrama in the Kingdom of the Videhas ; the Śvētāmbara Kalpa Sūtra uses the name "Kundagrama", said to be located in present-day Bihar, India. Although it is thought to be the town of Basu Kund, about 60 kilometres (37 miles) north of Patna (the capital of Bihar), his birthplace remains
2673-480: Is believed by a majority of Jaina scholars to have been of independent origin and not a protest movement of any kind, were led by Jaina thinkers, and were pre-Buddhist and pre-Vedic. Some scholars posit that the Indus Valley civilisation symbols may be related to later Jain statues, and the bull icon may have a connection to Rishabhanatha . According to Dundas, outside of the Jain tradition, historians date
2772-399: Is bound to saṃsāra (transmigration) because of karma (the effects of one's actions). Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the soul ( lesya ), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after death. According to Mahavira, there is no creator deity and existence has neither beginning nor end. Deities and demons however exist in Jainism , whose jivas are
2871-574: Is called Nigantha Nātaputta), and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way , rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira accepted both "it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of "perhaps". The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering metaphysical , philosophical questions
2970-457: Is considered the foundation for developing right belief (samyak darshan) and attaining samyak gyan ( omniscience ). Mahavira taught the doctrine of anekantavada (many-sided reality). Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions posed by his followers. Truth and reality are complex, and have
3069-510: Is controversial (see Shamanism § Etymology ). Several śramaṇa movements are known to have existed in India before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira), and these influenced both the āstika and nāstika traditions of Indian philosophy. Martin Wiltshire states that the Śramaṇa tradition evolved in India over two phases, namely Paccekabuddha and Savaka phases, the former being
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3168-405: Is devoid of love and hate; (he is called) Sramana (i.e. ascetic), because he sustains dreadful dangers and fears, the noble nakedness, and the miseries of the world; the name Venerable Ascetic Mahavira has been given to him by the gods. Another Jain canon, Sūtrakrtanga describes the śramaṇa as an ascetic who has taken Mahavrata , the five great vows: He is a Śramaṇa for this reason that he
3267-659: Is found in Vedic literature, with terms such as yatis , rishis , and śramaṇas. The Vedic literature from pre-1000 BCE era, mentions Muni (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man). Rig Veda , for example, in Book 10 Chapter 136, mentions mendicants as those with kēśin (केशिन्, long-haired) and mala clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) engaged in the affairs of mananat (mind, meditation). केश्यग्निं केशी विषं केशी बिभर्ति रोदसी । केशी विश्वं स्वर्दृशे केशीदं ज्योतिरुच्यते ॥१॥ मुनयो वातरशनाः पिशङ्गा वसते मला । वातस्यानु ध्राजिं यन्ति यद्देवासो अविक्षत ॥२॥ He with
3366-546: Is known as Sramana in the Kalpa Sūtra , "devoid of love and hate". According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's prosperity at the time of his birth. According to the Kalpasutras , he was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by the gods in the Kalpa Sūtra because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears, hardships and calamities. He
3465-562: Is not hampered by any obstacles, that he is free from desires, (abstaining from) property, killing, telling lies, and sexual intercourse; (and from) wrath, pride, deceit, greed, love, and hate: thus giving up every passion that involves him in sin, (such as) killing of beings. (Such a man) deserves the name of a Śramaṇa, who subdues (moreover) his senses, is well qualified (for his task), and abandons his body. The Sūtrakrtanga records that prince, Ardraka , who became disciple to Mahavira, arguing with other heretical teachers, told Makkhali Gosala
3564-468: Is placed in Parshvanatha's lineage as his spiritual successor and ultimate leader of shraman sangha. Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira. Parshvanatha , a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE. Jain texts suggest that Mahavira's parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. When Mahavira revived the Jain community in
3663-528: Is said to have lived in Rajagriha during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491 BCE. According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala Jnana (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree on the bank of the River Rijubalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance. The details of
3762-424: Is the complete truth, have made very important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy , especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity. Jain monastics are known as śramaṇas while lay practitioners are called śrāvakas . The religion or code of conduct of the monks is known as the śramaṇa dharma. Jain canons like Ācārāṅga Sūtra and other later texts contain many references to Sramanas. One verse of
3861-530: Is the focus of Jain temple devotion. Of the 24 tirthankaras , Jain iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most; sculptures discovered at the Mathura archaeological site have been dated to the 1st century BCE. According to Moriz Winternitz , Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known as Niganthas (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist texts. The Barli Inscription dating back to 443 BCE contains
3960-590: Is uncertain when Mahavira was born and when he died. One view is that Mahavira was born in 540 BCE and died in 443 BCE. The Barli Inscription in Prakrit language which was inscribed in 443 BCE (year 84 of the Vira Nirvana Samvat ), contains the line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase , which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year", 84 years after the Nirvana of
4059-432: Is unclear, partly because of migrations from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons. According to the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many rebirths (total 27 births) before his birth in the 6th-century BCE. They included a denizen of hell, a lion, and a god ( deva ) in a heavenly realm just before his last birth as the 24th tirthankara . Svetambara texts state that his embryo first formed in
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4158-421: The mahavratas (Five Vows). He delivered fifty-five pravachana (recitations) and a set of lectures ( Uttaraadhyayana-sutra ). Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order. According to Jain texts, Mahavira's nirvana (death) occurred in the town of Pawapuri in present-day Bihar . His life as a spiritual light and the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as Diwali at
4257-434: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra recounts his asceticism. Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's followers) a sect of Buddhism because of superficial similarities in iconography and meditative and ascetic practices. As scholarship progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged as separate. Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught
4356-458: The Uttara-purāṇa , Mahavira's life is described in three parvans , or sections, (74–76) and 1,818 verses. Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya poem, written by Asaga in 853 CE , which narrates the life of Mahavira. The Kalpa Sūtra is a collection of biographies of tirthankaras , notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Samavayanga Sutra is a collection of Mahavira's teachings, and
4455-528: The epistemic authority of the Vedas , while a part of the śramaṇa tradition became part of Hinduism as one stage in the Ashrama dharma, that is as renunciate sannyasins . Pali samaṇa has been suggested as the ultimate origin of the word Evenki сама̄н ( samān ) "shaman", possibly via Middle Chinese or Tocharian B ; however, the etymology of this word, which is also found in other Tungusic languages ,
4554-610: The Ācāranga sūtra defines a good śramaṇa: Disregarding (all calamities) he lives together with clever monks, insensitive to pain and pleasure, not hurting the movable and immovable (beings), not killing, bearing all: so is described the great sage, a good Sramana. The chapter on renunciation contains a śramaṇa vow of non-possession: I shall become a śramaṇa who owns no house, no property, no sons, no cattle, who eats what others give him; I shall commit no sinful action; Master, I renounce to accept anything that has not been given.' Having taken such vows, (a mendicant) should not, on entering
4653-422: The Ājīvika . The śramaṇa religions became popular in the same circles of mendicants from greater Magadha that led to the development of spiritual practices, as well as the popular concepts in all major Indian religions such as saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle). The Śramaṇic traditions have a diverse range of beliefs, ranging from accepting or denying
4752-421: The 1st century CE, guided the Āchāryas Pushpadant and Bhutabali as they wrote down the teachings. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , among the oldest-known Digambara texts, on palm leaves. The Jain Agamas enumerate five vratas (vows) which ascetics and householders must observe. These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira: The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace,
4851-578: The 2nd century CE text Ashokavadana , the Mauryan emperor Bindusara was a patron of the Ajivikas, and it reached its peak of popularity during this time. Ashokavadana also mentions that Bindusara's son Ashoka converted to Buddhism, became enraged at a picture that depicted Buddha in negative light, and issued an order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana . Around 18,000 followers of
4950-417: The 3rd century BCE Dhammapada , verse 265: samitattā pāpānaŋ ʻsamaṇoʼ ti pavuccati ("someone who has pacified evil is called samaṇa "). The word śramaṇa is postulated to be derived from the verbal root śram , meaning "to exert effort, labor or to perform austerity". The history of wandering monks in ancient India is partly untraceable. The term 'parivrajaka' was perhaps applicable to all
5049-522: The 6th century BCE. According to Jain tradition, the traditional date of 527 BCE is accurate; the Buddha was younger than Mahavira and "might have attained nirvana a few years later". The place of his nirvana, Pavapuri in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains. According to Jain cosmology , 24 Tirthankaras have appeared on earth; Mahavira is the last tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (the present time cycle ). A tirthankara ( ford -maker, saviour or spiritual teacher) signifies
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#17327913400025148-415: The 6th century BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. The followers of Parshvanatha vowed to observe ahimsa ; this obligation was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint). According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image
5247-532: The Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Jaina texts mention separation and conflict between Mahavira and Gosala, accusation of contemptuous comments, and an occasion where the Jaina and Ajivika monastic orders "came to blows". However, given the texts alleging conflict and portraying Ajivikas and Gosala in negative light were written centuries after the incident by their śramaṇa opponents, and given
5346-596: The Digambara believe that he remained in his Samavasarana and delivered sermons to his followers. Jain texts document eleven Brahmanas as Mahavira's first disciples, traditionally known as the eleven Ganadharas . Indrabhuti Gautama is believed to have been their leader, and the others included Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, Sudharman , Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa. The Ganadharas are believed to have remembered and to have verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His teachings became known as Gani-Pidaga , or
5445-461: The Digambara tradition holds that date of 468 BCE. In both traditions, his jiva (soul) is believed to abide in Siddhashila (the home of liberated souls). Mahavira's Jal Mandir stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana ( moksha ). Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small pyre of sandalwood and
5544-503: The Jain Agamas . According to Kalpa Sutra , Mahavira had 14,000 sadhus (male ascetic devotees), 36,000 sadhvis (female ascetics), 159,000 sravakas (male lay followers), and 318,000 sravikas (female lay followers). Jain tradition mentions Srenika and Kunika of Haryanka dynasty (popularly known as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru ) and Chetaka of Videha as his royal followers. Mahavira initiated his mendicants with
5643-527: The Mahavira as about contemporaneous with the Buddha in the 5th-century BCE, and accordingly the historical Parshvanatha , based on the c. 250-year gap, is placed in 8th or 7th century BCE. It was as a śramaṇa that the Buddha left his father's palace and practised austerities. Gautama Buddha , after fasting nearly to death by starvation, regarded extreme austerities and self-mortification as useless or unnecessary in attaining enlightenment, recommending instead
5742-536: The Mahavira. However, palaeographic analysis dates the inscription to the 2nd-1st century BCE. According to Buddhist and Jain texts, Buddha and Mahavira are believed to have been contemporaries which is supported by much ancient Buddhist literature. A firmly-established part of the Jain tradition is that the Vira Nirvana Samvat era began in 527 BCE (with Mahavira's nirvana). The 12th-century Jain scholar Hemachandracharya placed Mahavira in
5841-471: The Vedic era, neither did the Śramaṇa concept refer to an identifiable class, nor to ascetic groups as it does in later Indian literature. Additionally, in the early texts, some pre-dating 3rd-century BCE ruler Ashoka , the Brahmana and Śramaṇa are neither distinct nor opposed. The distinction, according to Olivelle, in later Indian literature "may have been a later semantic development possibly influenced by
5940-438: The age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic . Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and a half years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained moksha (liberation) in the 6th century BCE, although the year varies by sect . Mahavira taught attainment of samyak darshan or self realization through
6039-516: The appropriation of the latter term [Sramana] by Buddhism and Jainism". The Vedic society, states Olivelle, contained many people whose roots were non-Aryan who must have influenced the Aryan classes. However, it is difficult to identify and isolate these influences, in part because the vedic culture not only developed from influences but also from its inner dynamism and socio-economic developments. According to Indian anthropologist Ramaprasad Chanda
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#17327913400026138-761: The arrival of Buddha. According to the Jain Agamas and the Buddhist Pāli Canon , there were other śramaṇa leaders at the time of Buddha. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta ( DN 16), a śramaṇa named Subhadda mentions: ...those ascetics, samaṇa and Brahmins who have orders and followings, who are teachers, well-known and famous as founders of schools, and popularly regarded as saints, like Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla , Ajita Kesakambalī , Pakudha Kaccāyana , Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Mahavira)... The traditional view of scholars in
6237-475: The available evidence. According to Olivelle, and other scholars such as Edward Crangle, the concept of Śramaṇa exists in the early Brahmanical literature. The term is used in an adjectival sense for sages who lived a special way of life that the Vedic culture considered extraordinary. However, Vedic literature does not provide details of that life. The term did not imply any opposition to either Brahmins or householders. In all likelihood states Olivelle, during
6336-496: The base of people wanting to become Buddhists. Buddhism also developed a code for interaction of world-pursuing lay people and world-denying Buddhist monastic communities , which encouraged continued relationship between the two. Collins states, for example, that two rules of the vinaya (monastic code) were that a person could not join a monastic community without parent's permission, and that at least one son remained with each family to care for that family. Buddhism also combined
6435-753: The common era, inscriptions suggests that the Ājīvikas had a significant presence in the South Indian state of Karnataka and the Kolar district of Tamil Nadu . Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy once existed, but these are unavailable and probably lost. Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of ancient Indian literature. Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, written by ancient Buddhist and Jaina scholars, who represented competing and adversarial philosophies to Ājīvikas. According to
6534-528: The concept of Soul , fatalism to free will, idealization of extreme asceticism to that of family life, renunciation, strict ahimsa (non-violence) and vegetarianism to permissibility of violence and meat-eating. One of the earliest recorded uses of the word śramaṇa , in the sense of a mendicant, is in verse 4.3.22 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad composed by about the 6th century BCE. The concept of renunciation and monk-like lifestyle
6633-427: The continuing interaction, such as giving alms to renunciants, in terms of merit gained for good rebirth and good karma by the lay people. This code played a historic role in its growth, and provided a means for reliable alms (food, clothing) and social support for Buddhism. Randall Collins states that Buddhism was more a reform movement within the educated religious classes, composed mostly of Brahmins , rather than
6732-453: The early centuries of the common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written in palm-leaf manuscripts . According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned achāryas restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of Mahavira which were the subjects of the Agamas . Āchārya Dharasena, in
6831-571: The event are described in the Jain Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-purāņa texts. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The Sutrakritanga expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other qualities. Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body ( paramaudārika śarīra ) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience. According to the Śvētāmbara, he traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after attaining omniscience. However,
6930-472: The experience is syāt : valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma. Mahavira's anekantavada doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta (in which he
7029-483: The false identification of the soul with material objects, including the body and mind. The teachings of bhedvijnān guide an individual to recognize what is truly the soul and what is not. By distinguishing between the pure soul and the transient elements of life, one can cultivate detachment (vairagya) and move toward liberation (moksha). This was expounded in detail in works of Acharya Kundkund , Acharya Haribhadra , Yashovijaya and Shrimad Rajchandra . Bhedvigyan plays
7128-493: The field, represented for example by Govind Chandra Pande in his 1957 study on the origins of Buddhism, is that Śramaṇa began as a "distinct and separate cultural and religious" tradition from Vedic religion . However, this claim is disputed by several Indologists and Sanskrit scholars such as Patrick Olivelle . Patrick Olivelle , a professor of Indology and known for his translations of major ancient Sanskrit works, states in his 1993 study that contrary to some representations,
7227-584: The founding of a tirtha , a passage across the sea of birth-and-death cycles . Tirthankara Mahavira was born into a royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and Queen Trishala of the Licchavi republic . The Ikshvaku Dynasty was founded by the First tirthankara Rishabhanatha . According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599 BCE. His birth date falls on
7326-438: The height of their prominence in the late 1st millennium BCE, then declined, yet continued to exist in south India until the 14th century CE, as evidenced by inscriptions found in southern India. Ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism mention a city in the first millennium BCE named Savatthi (Sanskrit Śravasti ) as the hub of the Ājīvikas; it was located in what is now the North Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . In later part of
7425-467: The independent existence of soul and matter, predominance of karma , the denial of a creative and omnipotent God , belief in an eternal and uncreated universe , a strong emphasis on nonviolence , an accent on anekantavada and morality and ethics based on liberation of the soul . The Jain philosophy of anekantavada and syādvāda , which posits that the truth or reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view
7524-555: The life of Buddha, Mahavira and the Buddha were leaders of their śramaṇa orders. Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta refers to Mahāvīra. According to Pande, Jainas were the same as the Niganthas mentioned in the Buddhist texts, and they were a well established sect when Buddha began preaching. He states, without identifying supporting evidence, that " Jainas " appear to have belonged to the non-Vedic Munis and Sramanas who may have been ultimately connected with pre-Vedic civilization". The śramaṇa system
7623-587: The line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase , which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year". Sramana A śramaṇa ( Sanskrit : श्रमण , Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɕrɐmɐɳɐ] ; Pali : 𑀲𑀫𑀡 , romanized: samaṇa ; Chinese : 沙門 ; pinyin : shāmén ; Vietnamese : sa môn ) is a person "who labours, toils, or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose" or "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic". The śramaṇa tradition includes primarily Jainism , Buddhism , and others such as
7722-503: The long loose locks (of hair) supports Agni, and moisture, heaven, and earth; He is all sky to look upon: he with long hair is called this light. The Munis , girdled with the wind, wear garments of soil hue; They, following the wind's swift course, go where the Gods have gone before. The hymn uses the term vātaraśana (वातरशन) which means "girdled with wind". Some scholars have interpreted this to mean "sky-clad, naked monk" and therefore
7821-465: The nails and hair of tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the body dissolves in the air like camphor . In some texts Mahavira is described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day period to a large group of people. The crowd falls asleep, awakening to find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his followers cremate). The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana occurred in 527 BCE, and
7920-523: The origin of Buddhism, not entirely to the Buddha, but to a "great religious ferment" towards the end of the Vedic period when the Brahmanic and Sramanic traditions intermingled. The Buddhist text of the Samaññaphala Sutta identifies six pre-Buddhist śrāmana schools, identifying them by their leader. These six schools are represented in the text to have diverse philosophies, which according to Padmanabh Jaini , may be "a biased picture and does not give
8019-470: The original Śramaṇa tradition was a part of the Vedic one. He writes, Sramana in that context obviously means a person who is in the habit of performing srama. Far from separating these seers from the vedic ritual tradition, therefore, śramaṇa places them right at the center of that tradition. Those who see them [Sramana seers] as non-Brahmanical, anti-Brahmanical, or even non-Aryan precursors of later sectarian ascetics are drawing conclusions that far outstrip
8118-481: The origins of Sramanism back to pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan cultures, particularly those practicing magic. He posited that the practice of asceticism could be linked to the initiatory phases of seclusion and abstinence observed by shamans. According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in " Greater Magadha ," which was Indo-Aryan, but not Vedic. In this culture, Kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals. Pande attributes
8217-528: The peripatetic monks of India, such as those found in Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism. The śramaṇa refers to a variety of renunciate ascetic traditions from the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. The śramaṇas were individual, experiential and free-form traditions. The term "śramaṇas" is used sometimes to contrast them with "Brahmins" in terms of their religious models. Part of the śramaṇa tradition retained their distinct identity from Hinduism by rejecting
8316-492: The possibility of moksha ( kaivalya , spiritual liberation). Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of Mahavira. According to the Acaranga Sutra , Mahavira believed that life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects, bodies of water, fire, and wind. He taught that a monk should avoid touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim, light (or extinguish)
8415-535: The practice of bhedvijnāna , which involves positioning oneself as a pure soul, separate from body, mind and emotions, and being aware of the soul's true nature; and to remain grounded and steadfast in soul's unchanging essence during varying auspicious or inauspicious external circumstances. He also preached that the observance of the vows of ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment) are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught
8514-400: The principles of Anekantavada (many-sided reality): syadvada and nayavada . Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Indrabhuti Gautama (his chief disciple) as the Jain Agamas . The texts, transmitted orally by Jain monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century CE. Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture, with the symbol of
8613-602: The pursuit of spiritual awakening. He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications, meditated under the Ashoka tree , and discarded his clothes. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra has a graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification. According to the Kalpa Sūtra , Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his life in Astikagrama, Champapuri , Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, Nalanda , Mithila , Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Shravasti , and Pawapuri . He
8712-449: The qualities of śramaṇas: He who (teaches) the great vows (of monks) and the five small vows (of the laity 3), the five Âsravas and the stoppage of the Âsravas, and control, who avoids Karman in this blessed life of Śramaṇas, him I call a Śramaṇa. Buddha initially practiced severe austerities, fasting himself nearly to death of starvation. However, he later considered extreme austerities and self-mortification as unnecessary and recommended
8811-549: The same time that Hindus celebrate it. His chief disciple, Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri. Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to the Jinasena 's Mahapurana , heavenly beings arrived to perform his funeral rites. The Pravachanasara of Digambara tradition says that only
8910-473: The soul (jiva) and the non-soul (ajiva). Central to his teachings, bhedvijnān is the practice of realizing the distinction between the pure soul, which is eternal, formless, and independent, and the temporary, external aspects of existence such as body, thoughts, emotions, and karmic influences. According to Mahavira, this understanding is crucial for attainment of nischay Samyak darshan (experiential self realization). He emphasized that human suffering arises from
9009-579: The thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar era . It falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar , and is celebrated by Jains as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak . Kshatriyakund (the place of Mahavira's birth) is traditionally believed to be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Its location in present-day Bihar
9108-469: The tradition of individual ascetic and latter of disciples, and that Buddhism and Jainism ultimately emerged from these as sectarian manifestations. These traditions drew upon already established Brahmanical concepts, states Wiltshire, to communicate their own distinct doctrines. Reginald Ray concurs that Śramaṇa movements already existed and were established traditions in pre-6th century BCE India, but disagrees with Wiltshire that they were nonsectarian before
9207-477: The versions in Buddhist and Jaina texts are different, the reliability of these stories, states Basham, is questionable. Jainism derives its philosophy from the teachings and lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras , of whom Mahavira was the last. Acharyas Umaswati , Kundakunda , Haribhadra , Yaśovijaya Gaṇi and others further developed and reorganized Jain philosophy in its present form. The distinguishing features of Jain philosophy are its belief in
9306-484: Was "highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals". A historically contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of renunciation (the fifth vow, aparigraha ). It was disputed whether a female mendicant ( sadhvi ) could achieve the spiritual liberation like a male mendicant ( sadhu ) through asceticism. The digambar sect (the sky-clad, naked mendicant order) believed that
9405-544: Was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). A version of this doctrine is also found in the Ajivika school of ancient Indian philosophy. According to Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal religious tolerance ... plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings. Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings are
9504-532: Was an older contemporary of Gautama Buddha . Jains celebrate Mahavir Janma Kalyanak every year on the 13th day of the Indian Calendar month of Chaitra . Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names (or epithets ) for Mahavira, including Nayaputta , Muni , Samana , Nigantha , Brahman , and Bhagavan . In early Buddhist sutras , he is referred to as Araha ("worthy") and Veyavi (derived from "Vedas", but meaning "wise"). He
9603-663: Was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana, also called Anojja. Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as four cubits (6 feet ) in the Aupapatika Sutra . According to Jain texts, he was the shortest of the twenty-four tirthankaras ; earlier arihants were believed to have been taller, with Neminatha or Aristanemi —the 22nd tirthankara , who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-five cubits (98 feet) in height. At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in
9702-485: Was the 24th Tirthankara (Supreme Preacher) of Jainism . He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha . Mahavira was born in the early 6th century BCE to a royal Kshatriya Jain family of ancient India . His mother's name was Trishala and his father's name was Siddhartha . According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara Ācārāṅga Sūtra , Siddhartha and his family were devotees of Parshvanatha . Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at
9801-409: Was the greatest authority on ahimsa . Mahavira taught that the soul exists. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its teachings are based on the concept of anatta (non-self). Mahavira taught that the soul is dravya (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary. To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists of dravya , jiva , and ajiva (inanimate objects). The jiva
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