In physical cosmology , the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper , or αβγ paper , was created by Ralph Alpher , then a physics PhD student, his advisor George Gamow , and Hans Bethe . The work, which would become the subject of Alpher's PhD dissertation, argued that the Big Bang would create hydrogen , helium and heavier elements in the correct proportions to explain their abundance in the early universe . While the original theory neglected a number of processes important to the formation of heavy elements, subsequent developments showed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis is consistent with the observed constraints on all primordial elements.
22-518: Formally titled "The Origin of Chemical Elements", it was published in the April 1948 issue of Physical Review . Gamow humorously decided to add the name of his friend—the eminent physicist Hans Bethe —to this paper in order to create the whimsical author list of Alpher, Bethe, Gamow, a play on the Greek letters α , β , and γ (alpha, beta, gamma). Bethe ( German pronunciation: [ˈbeːtə] )
44-464: A sister journal or companion journal is a newer academic journal affiliated with an established journal in the same field. These journals sometimes follow the "cascade or transfer model," whereby they publish academic papers rejected by the older, more prestigious journal in the publisher's portfolio. While the original journal often requires a subscription to read, these journals tend to be open access. This business model allows publishers to recoup
66-571: A home for and connection between the numerous research communities that make up quantum information science and technology, spanning from pure science to engineering to computer science and beyond. In 2023 PRX Life was launched to advance research from the interdisciplinary communities at the interface of the physical and life sciences. Jacilynn (Brant) Otero Margaret Hudson The term of copyright on volumes published before 1928 has expired. These volumes are available online for free in their entirety: Sister journal In academic publishing ,
88-606: A number of other scientists. However, the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory does correctly explain the relative abundances of the isotopes of hydrogen and helium . Taken together, these account for more than 99% of the baryonic mass of the universe. Today, nucleosynthesis is widely considered to have taken place in two stages: formation of hydrogen and helium according to the Alpher–Bethe–Gamow theory, and stellar nucleosynthesis of higher elements according to Bethe and Hoyle's later theories. Physical Review Physical Review
110-763: Is Michael Thoennessen , whose term began in September 2017. To celebrate the hundredth anniversary of the journal, a memoir was published jointly by the APS and AIP. In 1998, the first issue of Physical Review Special Topics: Accelerators and Beams was published, and in 2005, Physical Review Special Topics: Physics Education Research was launched. In January 2016 the names of both journals were changed to remove "Special Topics". Physical Review also started an online magazine, Physical Review Focus , in 1998 to explain and provide historical context for selected articles from Physical Review and Physical Review Letters . This
132-739: Is a peer-reviewed scientific journal established in 1893 by Edward Nichols . It publishes original research as well as scientific and literature reviews on all aspects of physics . It is published by the American Physical Society (APS). The journal is in its third series, and is split in several sub-journals each covering a particular field of physics. It has a sister journal , Physical Review Letters , which publishes shorter articles of broader interest. Physical Review commenced publication in July 1893, organized by Cornell University professor Edward Nichols and helped by
154-419: The APS launched Physical Review Fluids "to include additional areas of fluid dynamics research", and in 2017 it launched Physical Review Materials "to fill a gap" in the coverage of materials research. In 2019 Physical Review Research was launched to provide a broad fully open-access journal at about the same selectivity level as the older A – E journals. In 2020, PRX Quantum was launched to provide
176-475: The Greek alphabet to have the article signed by Alpher and Gamow only, and so the name of Dr. Hans A. Bethe ( in absentia ) was inserted in preparing the manuscript for print. Dr. Bethe, who received a copy of the manuscript, did not object, and, as a matter of fact, was quite helpful in subsequent discussions. There was, however, a rumor that later, when the alpha, beta, gamma theory went temporarily on
198-467: The editorial costs expended in the peer review process undergone at the original journal that ultimately resulted in a rejection and monetise the scholar's work by means of an article processing charge . Scholars, in turn, benefit, as they must only undergo one peer review process. A sister journal is not to be confused with a mirror journal , which is an open access journal that runs parallel to an established subscription journal, with which it often shares
220-839: The family, Physical Review E , was introduced in 1993 to a large part to accommodate the huge amount of new research in nonlinear dynamics . Combined, these constitute Physical Review Series III . The editorial office moved in 1980 to its present location across the expressway from Brookhaven National Laboratory. Goudsmit retired in 1974 and Pasternack in the mid-1970s. Past Editors in Chief include David Lazarus (1980–1990; University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign ), Benjamin Bederson (1990–1996; New York University ), Martin Blume (1996–2007; Brookhaven National Laboratory), and Gene Sprouse (2007–2015; SUNY Stony Brook ). The current Editor in Chief
242-463: The general-interest articles that appeared as Physical Review Focus . A short-lived journal, also called Physics , was published by Pergamon Press and Physics Publishing Co. from 1964 through 1968, with the goal of printing "a selection of papers which are worth the attention of all physicists." The four volumes of this journal were eventually made freely available online by the APS under the alternative title Physics Physique Физика , reflecting how
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#1732798055920264-645: The journals were managed on an interim basis still in Minnesota by E. L. Hill and J. William Buchta until Samuel Goudsmit and Simon Pasternack were appointed and the editorial office moved to Brookhaven National Laboratory on Eastern Long Island , New York . In July 1958, the sister journal Physical Review Letters was introduced to publish short articles of particularly broad interest, initially edited by George L. Trigg , who remained as editor until 1988. In 1970, Physical Review split into sub-journals Physical Review A , B , C , and D . A fifth member of
286-586: The location of editor John Torrence Tate, Sr. at the University of Minnesota . In 1929, the APS started publishing Reviews of Modern Physics , a venue for longer review articles. In 1932, the newly formed American Institute of Physics took over publication of Physical Review . During the Great Depression , wealthy scientist Alfred Loomis anonymously paid the journal's fees for authors who could not afford them. After Tate's death in 1950,
308-524: The new president of Cornell, J. Gould Schurman . The journal was managed and edited at Cornell in upstate New York from 1893 to 1913 by Nichols, Ernest Merritt , and Frederick Bedell. The 33 volumes published during this time constitute Physical Review Series I . The American Physical Society (APS), founded in 1899, took over its publication in 1913 and started Physical Review Series II . The journal remained at Cornell under editor-in-chief G. S. Fulcher from 1913 to 1926, before relocating to
330-703: The preferred formats. Since 2011, authors can pay an article processing charge to make their papers open access. Such papers are published under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License (CC-BY). Physical Review Letters celebrated their 50th birthday in 2008. The APS has a copyright policy to permit the author to reuse parts of the published article in a derivative or new work, including on Misplaced Pages . The APS has an online publication entitled Physics , aiming to help physicists and physics students to learn about new developments outside of their own subfield. This now includes
352-577: The rocks, Dr. Bethe seriously considered changing his name to Zacharias. The close fit of the calculated curve and the observed abundances is shown in Fig. 15, which represents the results of later calculations carried out on the electronic computer of the National Bureau of Standards by Ralph Alpher and R. C. Herman (who stubbornly refuses to change his name to Delter). After this, Bethe did work on Big Bang nucleosynthesis . Alpher, at
374-405: The steps is missing, this discovery meant that the successive-capture theory could not account for higher elements. It was eventually recognized that most of the heavy elements observed in the present universe are the result of stellar nucleosynthesis in stars, a theory first suggested by Arthur Stanley Eddington , given credence by Hans Bethe , and quantitatively developed by Fred Hoyle and
396-408: The successive capture of neutrons , one mass unit at a time. However, later study challenged the universality of the successive-capture theory. No element was found to have a stable isotope with an atomic mass of five or eight. Physicists soon noticed that these mass gaps would hinder the production of elements beyond helium. Just as it is impossible to climb a staircase one step at a time when one of
418-436: The time only a graduate student, was generally dismayed by the inclusion of Bethe's name on this paper. He felt that the inclusion of another eminent physicist would overshadow his personal contribution to this work and prevent him from receiving proper recognition for such an important discovery. He expressed resentment over Gamow's whimsy as late as 1999. The theory originally proposed that all atomic nuclei are produced by
440-574: The title was originally printed on the journal covers and how it was sometimes referred to in the years since. It also publishes Physical Review X , an online-only open access journal . It is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes, as timely as possible, original research papers from all areas of pure, applied, and interdisciplinary physics. In 2014 Physical Review Applied began publishing research across all aspects of experimental and theoretical applications of physics, including their interactions with other sciences, engineering, and industry. In 2016
462-483: Was listed in the article as "H. Bethe, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York ". In his 1952 book The Creation of the Universe , Gamow explained Hans Bethe's association with the theory thus: The results of these calculations were first announced in a letter to The Physical Review , April 1, 1948. This was signed Alpher, Bethe, and Gamow, and is often referred to as the 'alphabetical article'. It seemed unfair to
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#1732798055920484-400: Was merged into Physics in 2011. The Special Topics journals are open access ; Physics Education Research requires page charges from the authors, but Accelerators and Beams does not. Though not fully open access, Physical Review Letters also requires an author page charge, although this is voluntary. The other journals require such a charge only if manuscripts are not prepared in one of
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