63-474: Avionics (a portmanteau of aviation and electronics ) are the electronic systems used on aircraft . Avionic systems include communications, navigation , the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform. The term " avionics "
126-540: A traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution. To help avoid controlled flight into terrain ( CFIT ), aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as
189-442: A " stish " or a " starsh ", it would be a blend. Furthermore, when blends are formed by shortening established compounds or phrases, they can be considered clipped compounds , such as romcom for romantic comedy . Blends of two or more words may be classified from each of three viewpoints: morphotactic, morphonological, and morphosemantic. Blends may be classified morphotactically into two kinds: total and partial . In
252-832: A combination of technical expertise, precision, and adherence to stringent regulatory standards. The process typically involves: Avionics installation is governed by strict regulatory frameworks to ensure the safety and reliability of aircraft systems. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets the standards for avionics installations. These include guidelines for: The field of avionics has seen rapid technological advancements in recent years, leading to more integrated and automated systems. Key trends include: Specialized avionics installation shops provide these services to aircraft owners, ensuring compliance with industry standards and
315-613: A crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident. Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions , where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas. Lightning detectors like
378-515: A definition of general aviation which includes aerial work. General aviation thus represents the " private transport " and recreational components of aviation, most of which is accomplished with light aircraft . The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines civil aviation aircraft operations in three categories: General Aviation (GA), Aerial Work (AW) and Commercial Air Transport (CAT). Aerial work operations are separated from general aviation by ICAO by this definition. Aerial work
441-535: A form suitable for carrying on horseback; (now esp.) one in the form of a stiff leather case hinged at the back to open into two equal parts". According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD ), the etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau , from porter , "to carry", and manteau , "cloak" (from Old French mantel , from Latin mantellum ). According to
504-435: A key element. One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of "look-ahead" information, because it only provides altitude above terrain "look-down". In order to overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system ( TAWS ). Commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as "black boxes", store flight information and audio from the cockpit . They are often recovered from an aircraft after
567-427: A kind of bath), the attributive blends of English are mostly head-final and mostly endocentric . As an example of an exocentric attributive blend, Fruitopia may metaphorically take the buyer to a fruity utopia (and not a utopian fruit); however, it is not a utopia but a drink. Coordinate blends (also called associative or portmanteau blends) combine two words having equal status, and have two heads. Thus brunch
630-453: A single screen, greatly simplifying navigation. Modern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain and traffic warning systems. In‑plane weather avionics are especially popular in Africa , India , and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is not as well developed. There has been a progression towards centralized control of
693-486: A total blend, each of the words creating the blend is reduced to a mere splinter. Some linguists limit blends to these (perhaps with additional conditions): for example, Ingo Plag considers "proper blends" to be total blends that semantically are coordinate, the remainder being "shortened compounds". Commonly for English blends, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another: Much less commonly in English,
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#1732775634499756-418: A while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft. Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices ( sonobuoys ) and these are also used to determine the location of enemy submarines. Electro-optic systems include devices such as
819-411: A wide variety of aircraft: light and ultra-light aircraft, sport aircraft , homebuilt aircraft , business aircraft (like private jets ), gliders and helicopters . Flights can be carried out under both visual flight and instrument flight rules, and can use controlled airspace with permission. The majority of the world's air traffic falls into the category of general aviation, and most of
882-423: A word formed by combining the meanings, and parts of the sounds, of two or more words together. English examples include smog , coined by blending smoke and fog , as well as motel , from motor ( motorist ) and hotel . A blend is similar to a contraction . On the one hand, mainstream blends tend to be formed at a particular historical moment followed by a rapid rise in popularity. Contractions, on
945-556: Is frankenword , an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending " Frankenstein " and "word". General aviation General aviation ( GA ) is defined by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as all civil aviation aircraft operations except for commercial air transport or aerial work, which is defined as specialized aviation services for other purposes. However, for statistical purposes, ICAO uses
1008-477: Is a Japanese blend that has entered the English language. The Vietnamese language also encourages blend words formed from Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . For example, the term Việt Cộng is derived from the first syllables of "Việt Nam" (Vietnam) and "Cộng sản" (communist). Many corporate brand names , trademarks, and initiatives, as well as names of corporations and organizations themselves, are blends. For example, Wiktionary , one of Misplaced Pages 's sister projects,
1071-496: Is a blend of wiki and dictionary . The word portmanteau was introduced in this sense by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871), where Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the coinage of unusual words used in " Jabberwocky ". Slithy means "slimy and lithe" and mimsy means "miserable and flimsy". Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the practice of combining words in various ways, comparing it to
1134-713: Is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation (AM) is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication. Air navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite navigation systems (such as GPS and WAAS ), inertial navigation system (INS), ground-based radio navigation systems (such as VOR or LORAN ), or any combination thereof. Some navigation systems such as GPS calculate
1197-440: Is both phonological and orthographic, but with no other shortening: The overlap may be both phonological and orthographic, and with some additional shortening to at least one of the ingredients: Such an overlap may be discontinuous: These are also termed imperfect blends. It can occur with three components: The phonological overlap need not also be orthographic: If the phonological but non-orthographic overlap encompasses
1260-699: Is neither a breakfasty lunch nor a lunchtime breakfast but instead some hybrid of breakfast and lunch; Oxbridge is equally Oxford and Cambridge universities. This too parallels (conventional, non-blend) compounds: an actor–director is equally an actor and a director. Two kinds of coordinate blends are particularly conspicuous: those that combine (near‑) synonyms: and those that combine (near‑) opposites: Blending can also apply to roots rather than words, for instance in Israeli Hebrew : "There are two possible etymological analyses for Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár 'bank clerk, teller'. The first
1323-433: Is represented by various shorter substitutes – ‑otel ... – which I shall call splinters. Words containing splinters I shall call blends". Thus, at least one of the parts of a blend, strictly speaking, is not a complete morpheme , but instead a mere splinter or leftover word fragment. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a blend, of star and fish , as it includes both words in full. However, if it were called
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#17327756344991386-405: Is that it consists of (Hebrew>) Israeli כסף késef 'money' and the ( International /Hebrew>) Israeli agentive suffix ר- -ár . The second is that it is a quasi- portmanteau word which blends כסף késef 'money' and (Hebrew>) Israeli ספר √spr 'count'. Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár started as a brand name but soon entered the common language. Even if the second analysis is the correct one,
1449-588: Is when an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, and aerial advertisement. However, for statistical purposes ICAO includes aerial work within general aviation, and has proposed officially extending the definition of general aviation to include aerial work, to reflect common usage. The proposed ICAO classification includes instructional flying as part of general aviation (non-aerial-work). The International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations (IAOPA) refers to
1512-639: The Civil Aviation Authority . The main focus is on standards of airworthiness and pilot licensing , and the objective is to promote high standards of safety. General aviation is particularly popular in North America, with over 6,300 airports available for public use by pilots of general aviation aircraft (around 5,200 airports in the U.S. and over 1,000 in Canada ). In comparison, scheduled flights operate from around 560 airports in
1575-546: The Gulfstream G‑IV private jet in 1985. One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed. Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War I to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit accurate targets from 25,000 feet. When it
1638-533: The OED Online , the etymology of the word is the "officer who carries the mantle of a person in a high position (1507 in Middle French), case or bag for carrying clothing (1547), clothes rack (1640)". In modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet , a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. An occasional synonym for "portmanteau word"
1701-572: The Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) initiative in Europe. The Joint Planning and Development Office put forth a roadmap for avionics in six areas: The Aircraft Electronics Association reports $ 1.73 billion avionics sales for the first three quarters of 2017 in business and general aviation , a 4.1% yearly improvement: 73.5% came from North America, forward-fit represented 42.3% while 57.7% were retrofits as
1764-571: The head-up display (HUD), forward looking infrared (FLIR), infrared search and track and other passive infrared devices ( Passive infrared sensor ). These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target acquisition . Electronic support measures and defensive aids systems are used extensively to gather information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against
1827-634: The magnetron vacuum tube , in the famous Tizard Mission , significantly shortened the war. Modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F-15E and the now retired F-14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics. The civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems ( fly-by-wire ) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs. The major change has been
1890-506: The 1970s when flight-worthy cathode-ray tube (CRT) screens began to replace electromechanical displays, gauges and instruments. A "glass" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention. In the 1970s, the average aircraft had more than 100 cockpit instruments and controls. Glass cockpits started to come into being with
1953-674: The Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) and published by ARINC. Avionics installation is a critical aspect of modern aviation, ensuring that aircraft are equipped with the necessary electronic systems for safe and efficient operation. These systems encompass a wide range of functions, including communication, navigation, monitoring, flight control, and weather detection. Avionics installations are performed on all types of aircraft, from small general aviation planes to large commercial jets and military aircraft. The installation of avionics requires
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2016-457: The GA fleet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours flown. There are 28,000 private pilot licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots . Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities. GA operates from more than 1,800 airports and landing sites or aerodromes , ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips. GA is regulated by
2079-522: The Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD ) are now available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain, and traffic onto
2142-518: The U.S. According to the U.S. Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association , general aviation provides more than one percent of the United States' GDP , accounting for 1.3 million jobs in professional services and manufacturing . Most countries have a civil aviation authority that oversees all civil aviation , including general aviation, adhering to the standardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. According to
2205-454: The U.S. National Transportation Safety Board , general aviation in the United States (excluding charter) suffered 1.31 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours of flying in 2005, compared to 0.016 for scheduled airline flights. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for 0.7 fatal accidents for every 1000 aircraft, while air taxi accounted for 1.1 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours. More experienced GA pilots appear generally safer, although
2268-1131: The U.S. deadline of January 1, 2020 for mandatory ADS-B out approach. The cockpit or, in larger aircraft, under the cockpit of an aircraft or in a movable nosecone, is a typical location for avionic bay equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 115 volts 400 Hz, AC. There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including The Boeing Company , Panasonic Avionics Corporation , Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King ), Universal Avionics Systems Corporation , Rockwell Collins (now Collins Aerospace), Thales Group , GE Aviation Systems , Garmin , Raytheon , Parker Hannifin , UTC Aerospace Systems (now Collins Aerospace), Selex ES (now Leonardo ), Shadin Avionics, and Avidyne Corporation . International standards for avionics equipment are prepared by
2331-414: The aircraft. They are also used to determine the state of a threat and identify it. The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with their primary application, include: Portmanteau In linguistics , a blend —also known as a blend word , lexical blend , or portmanteau —is
2394-531: The amount of fuel aboard. Using various sensors, such as capacitance tubes, temperature sensors, densitometers & level sensors, the FQIS computer calculates the mass of fuel remaining on board. Fuel Control and Monitoring System (FCMS) reports fuel remaining on board in a similar manner, but, by controlling pumps & valves, also manages fuel transfers around various tanks. To supplement air traffic control , most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use
2457-424: The backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF , VHF Tactical (30–88 MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links such as Link 11 , 16 , 22 and BOWMAN , JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.). Airborne radar
2520-502: The beginning of one word may be followed by the beginning of another: Some linguists do not regard beginning+beginning concatenations as blends, instead calling them complex clippings, clipping compounds or clipped compounds . Unusually in English, the end of one word may be followed by the end of another: A splinter of one word may replace part of another, as in three coined by Lewis Carroll in " Jabberwocky ": They are sometimes termed intercalative blends; these words are among
2583-417: The category as general aviation/aerial work (GA/AW) to avoid ambiguity. Their definition of general aviation includes: General aviation thus includes both commercial and non-commercial activities. IAOPA's definition of aerial work includes, but is not limited to: Commercial air transport includes: However, in some countries, air taxi is regarded as being part of GA/AW. Private flights are made in
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2646-599: The final syllable ר- -ár apparently facilitated nativization since it was regarded as the Hebrew suffix ר- -år (probably of Persian pedigree), which usually refers to craftsmen and professionals, for instance as in Mendele Mocher Sforim 's coinage סמרטוטר smartutár 'rag-dealer'." Blending may occur with an error in lexical selection , the process by which a speaker uses his semantic knowledge to choose words. Lewis Carroll's explanation, which gave rise to
2709-403: The ingredients is the head and the other is attributive. A porta-light is a portable light, not a 'light-emitting' or light portability; light is the head. A snobject is a snobbery-satisfying object and not an objective or other kind of snob; object is the head. As is also true for (conventional, non-blend) attributive compounds (among which bathroom , for example, is a kind of room, not
2772-615: The latest generation of airliners . Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E‑3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers. Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors. While aircraft communications provide
2835-433: The latest technologies. Notable shops include: Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by public-address systems and aircraft intercoms. The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000 MHz to 136.975 MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33 kHz in Europe, 25 kHz elsewhere. VHF
2898-495: The morphemes or phonemes stay in the same position within the syllable. Some languages, like Japanese , encourage the shortening and merging of borrowed foreign words (as in gairaigo ), because they are long or difficult to pronounce in the target language. For example, karaoke , a combination of the Japanese word kara (meaning empty ) and the clipped form oke of the English loanword "orchestra" (J. ōkesutora , オーケストラ ),
2961-478: The multiple complex systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to give maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement. The integrated modular avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and
3024-495: The original "portmanteaus" for which this meaning of the word was created. In a partial blend, one entire word is concatenated with a splinter from another. Some linguists do not recognize these as blends. An entire word may be followed by a splinter: A splinter may be followed by an entire word: An entire word may replace part of another: These have also been called sandwich words, and classed among intercalative blends. (When two words are combined in their entirety,
3087-491: The other hand, are formed by the gradual drifting together of words over time due to them commonly appearing together in sequence, such as do not naturally becoming don't (phonologically, / d uː n ɒ t / becoming / d oʊ n t / ). A blend also differs from a compound , which fully preserves the stems of the original words. The British lecturer Valerie Adams's 1973 Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation explains that "In words such as motel ..., hotel
3150-701: The pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying. Radar , the central technology used today in aircraft navigation and air traffic control , was developed by several nations, mainly in secret, as an air defense system in the 1930s during the runup to World War II . Many modern avionics have their origins in World War ;II wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are commonplace today began as specialized systems to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Britain's 1940 decision to share its radar technology with its U.S. ally, particularly
3213-420: The position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Older ground-based Navigation systems such as VOR or LORAN requires a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. The first hints of glass cockpits emerged in
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#17327756344993276-496: The recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have been invented. Avionics plays a heavy role in modernization initiatives like the Federal Aviation Administration 's (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System project in the United States and
3339-453: The result is considered a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe. ) Morphologically, blends fall into two kinds: overlapping and non-overlapping . Overlapping blends are those for which the ingredients' consonants, vowels or even syllables overlap to some extent. The overlap can be of different kinds. These are also called haplologic blends. There may be an overlap that
3402-484: The then-common type of luggage , which opens into two equal parts: You see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word. In his introduction to his 1876 poem The Hunting of the Snark , Carroll again uses portmanteau when discussing lexical selection: Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take
3465-462: The two words "fuming" and "furious". Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say "frumious". In then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. According to the OED Online , a portmanteau is a "case or bag for carrying clothing and other belongings when travelling; (originally) one of
3528-406: The use of 'portmanteau' for such combinations, was: Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious." Make up your mind that you will say both words ... you will say "frumious." The errors are based on similarity of meanings, rather than phonological similarities, and
3591-542: The whole of the shorter ingredient, as in then the effect depends on orthography alone. (They are also called orthographic blends. ) An orthographic overlap need not also be phonological: For some linguists, an overlap is a condition for a blend. Non-overlapping blends (also called substitution blends) have no overlap, whether phonological or orthographic: Morphosemantically, blends fall into two kinds: attributive and coordinate . Attributive blends (also called syntactic or telescope blends) are those in which one of
3654-583: The world's airports serve GA exclusively. Flying clubs are considered a part of general aviation. In 2003, the European Aviation Safety Agency was established as the central EU regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities. Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the United Kingdom, 96 percent are engaged in GA operations, and annually
3717-566: Was coined in 1949 by Philip J. Klass , senior editor at Aviation Week & Space Technology magazine as a portmanteau of " aviation electronics ". Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I . The first airborne radios were in zeppelins , but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane
3780-517: Was conducted by the U.S. Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy . They required a two-seat aircraft with a second crewman who operated a telegraph key to spell out messages in Morse code . During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 (see TM (triode) ) by the development of the triode vacuum tube , which were simple enough that
3843-511: Was first adopted by the U.S. military , a Honeywell engineer sat in the back seat with bolt cutters to disconnect the autopilot in case of emergency. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff. The first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters , auto-stabilization
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#17327756344993906-419: Was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include airborne early warning (AEW), anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and even weather radar ( Arinc 708 ) and ground tracking/proximity radar. The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels . While the civil market has had weather radar for
3969-412: Was used in a similar way. The first systems were electromechanical. The advent of fly-by-wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is very strictly tested. Fuel Quantity Indication System (FQIS) monitors
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