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80-452: CNS may refer to: Science and medicine [ edit ] Central nervous system Clinical nurse specialist Coagulase-negative staphylococcus Connectedness to nature scale Conserved non-coding sequence of DNA Crigler–Najjar syndrome Crystallography and NMR system , a software library Color Naming System Military [ edit ] CNS (chemical weapon) ,

160-428: A cortex , composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form tracts and commissures . Apart from cortical gray matter there is also subcortical gray matter making up a large number of different nuclei . From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves ). The nerves connect

240-406: A vestigial coccyx . A dorsal nerve cord , which folds and fuses into a hollow neural tube during embryonic development and eventually gives rise to the brain and spinal cord , runs more dorsally to the axial endoskeleton (enclosed by protective skeletal extensions known as neural arches ), with a fore-end enlargement that is contained within a distinct skeletonized braincase (hence

320-586: A mixture of chloroacetophenone, chloropicrin and chloroform Chief of the Naval Staff (disambiguation) , in several countries Former Taiwanese navy ship prefix Education [ edit ] Cicero-North Syracuse High School , New York, US City of Norwich School , England Computation and Neural Systems , a Caltech program Organisations [ edit ] Canadian Nuclear Society Chinese Nuclear Society Congress of Neurological Surgeons Corporation for National Service, later

400-401: A motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and cognition . These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Positron emission tomography . The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger cerebrum , but

480-543: A nuclear power plant in United States Communication, navigation and surveillance , in air traffic management Custody Notification Service , Australian advice service " Cell , Nature , or Science ": a "CNS Paper" means a scientific publication in one of these high-profile scientific journals See also [ edit ] All pages with titles beginning with CNS All pages with titles containing CNS Topics referred to by

560-409: A pair of secondary enlargements of the hindbrain become the cerebella , which modulate complex motor coordinations . The brain vesicles are usually bilaterally symmetrical , giving rise to the paired cerebral hemispheres in mammals . The resultant anatomy of a central nervous system arising from a single nerve cord dorsal to the gut tube , headed by a series of (typically paired) brain vesicles,

640-403: A single axon, completely surrounding it. Sometimes, they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons. Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane , which envelop and enclose the axon. During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and

720-534: A specialized form of macrophage , involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue . Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis , a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons. The brain ( cerebrum as well as midbrain and hindbrain ) consists of

800-428: A specific clinical question and not as routine screening. Vertebrates Ossea Batsch, 1788 Vertebrates ( / ˈ v ɜːr t ə b r ɪ t s , - ˌ b r eɪ t s / ) are animals with a backbone or spine, consisting of vertebrae and intervertebral discs . The vertebrae are irregular bones , and the intervertebral discs are of fibrocartilage . The vertebral column surrounds and protects

880-439: Is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, as it includes fewer types of different neurons. It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information, as well as balance information from the vestibular organ . The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as

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960-628: Is composed of white and gray matter . This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes , while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the CNS. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia , while others such as microglia are

1040-414: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Central nervous system The rest of this article exclusively discusses the vertebrate central nervous system, which is radically distinct from all other animals. In vertebrates , the brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges . The meninges provide a barrier to chemicals dissolved in

1120-546: Is housed in the spinal canal within the vertebrae . Within the CNS, the interneuronal space is filled with a large amount of supporting non-nervous cells called neuroglia or glia from the Greek for "glue". In vertebrates, the CNS also includes the retina and the optic nerve ( cranial nerve II), as well as the olfactory nerves and olfactory epithelium . As parts of the CNS, they connect directly to brain neurons without intermediate ganglia . The olfactory epithelium

1200-425: Is replaced by a segmented series of mineralized elements called vertebrae separated by fibrocartilaginous intervertebral discs , which are embryonic and evolutionary remnants of the notochord. Hagfish are the only extant vertebrate whose notochord persists and is not integrated/ replaced by the vertebral column. A few vertebrates have secondarily lost this feature and retain the notochord into adulthood, such as

1280-451: Is situated above and rostral to the pons. It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres , among others. Additionally, parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of automatic eye movements. The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of

1360-526: Is strongly supported by two CSIs found in the proteins Rrp44 (associated with the exosome complex ) and serine palmitoyltransferase . These are exclusively shared by species from these two subphyla, but not cephalochordates . This indicates hat vertebrates are more closely related to tunicates than cephalochordates. The "Notochordata hypothesis" suggested that the Cephalochordata is the sister taxon to Craniata (Vertebrata). This group, called

1440-406: Is the only central nervous tissue outside the meninges in direct contact with the environment, which opens up a pathway for therapeutic agents which cannot otherwise cross the meninges barrier. The CNS consists of two major structures: the brain and spinal cord . The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to

1520-446: Is the presence of neural crest cells, which are progenitor cells critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components. Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the dorsal nerve cord during development, initiate the formation of neuronal ganglia and various special sense organs. The peripheral nervous system forms when neural crest cells branch out laterally from the dorsal nerve cord and migrate together with

1600-399: Is unique to vertebrates. This is in stark contrast to invertebrates with well-developed central nervous systems such as arthropods and cephalopods , which have an often ladder-like ventral nerve cord made of paired segmental ganglia on the opposite ( ventral ) side of the gut tube, with a split brain stem circumventing the foregut around each side to form a brain on the dorsal side of

1680-474: The Izu–Ogasawara Trench at a depth of 8,336 metres (27,349 feet). Many fish varieties are the main predators in most of the world's freshwater and marine water bodies . The rest of the vertebrate species are tetrapods, a single lineage that includes amphibians (with roughly 7,000 species); mammals (with approximately 5,500 species); and reptiles and birds (with about 20,000 species divided evenly between

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1760-633: The Jurassic . The Cenozoic world saw great diversification of bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Over half of all living vertebrate species (about 32,000 species) are fish (non-tetrapod craniates), a diverse set of lineages that inhabit all the world's aquatic ecosystems, from the Tibetan stone loach ( Triplophysa stolickai ) in western Tibetan hot springs near Longmu Lake at an elevation of 5,200 metres (17,100 feet) to an unknown species of snailfish (genus Pseudoliparis ) in

1840-574: The Placodermi and the Acanthodii , both considered paraphyletic . Other ways of classifying the vertebrates have been devised, particularly with emphasis on the phylogeny of early amphibians and reptiles. An example based on Janvier (1981, 1997), Shu et al. (2003), and Benton (2004) is given here († = extinct ): While this traditional classification is orderly, most of the groups are paraphyletic , i.e. do not contain all descendants of

1920-469: The Placodermi , a group of armoured fish that dominated the entirety of that period since the late Silurian as well as the eurypterids , dominant animals of the preceding Silurian , and the anomalocarids . By the middle of the Devonian, several droughts, anoxic events and oceanic competition led a lineage of sarcopterygii to leave water, eventually establishing themselves as terrestrial tetrapods in

2000-530: The cartilaginous fish and the bony fish . Bony fish include the lobe-finned fish , which gave rise to the tetrapods , the animals with four limbs. Vertebrates make up less than five percent of all described animal species ; the rest are all invertebrates , that lack a backbone. The word 'vertebrate' derives from the Latin vertebratus ("jointed"), from vertebra meaning "joint", in turn from Latin vertere to turn. All vertebrates are built along

2080-494: The cephalochordates ), though it lacks eyes and other complex special sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalization. The rostral end of the neural tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles : the prosencephalon ( forebrain ), mesencephalon ( midbrain ) and rhombencephalon ( hindbrain ), which are further differentiated in

2160-433: The face and neck . The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex . In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste. The midbrain, or mesencephalon,

2240-565: The genetics of organisms. Phylogenetic classification is based solely on phylogeny . Evolutionary systematics gives an overview; phylogenetic systematics gives detail. The two systems are thus complementary rather than opposed. Conventional classification has extant vertebrates grouped into seven classes based on traditional interpretations of gross anatomical and physiological traits. The commonly held classification lists three classes of fish and four of tetrapods . In addition to these, there are two classes of extinct armoured fishes,

2320-434: The medulla , the pons and the midbrain . The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here. Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing . Other nuclei are involved in balance , taste , hearing , and control of muscles of

2400-444: The mesodermal somites to innervate the various different structures that develop in the body. The vertebrates are the only chordate group with neural cephalization , and their neural functions are centralized towards a series of enlarged clusters in the head , which give rise to a brain . A slight swelling of the anterior end of the nerve cord is found in invertebrate chordates such as lancelets (a sister subphylum known as

2480-520: The mouth . The higher functions of the vertebrate CNS are highly centralized towards the brain (particularly the forebrain), while the invertebrate CNS is significantly more decentralized with the segmental ganglia having substantial neural autonomy independent of the brain (which itself is a fused cluster of segmental ganglia from the rostral metameres ). Molecular markers known as conserved signature indels (CSIs) in protein sequences have been identified and provide distinguishing criteria for

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2560-459: The neocortex , and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles (lateral ventricles). Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus , hypothalamus , thalamus and epithalamus , and its cavity forms the third ventricle . The tectum , pretectum , cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things,

2640-418: The olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the CNS. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on CNS neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of CNS tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs. At the anterior end of the spinal cord lies

2720-514: The pharynx . Research also suggests that the sixth branchial arch contributed to the formation of the vertebrate shoulder, which separated the head as a distinct part of the body. In amphibians and some primitive bony fishes, the larvae bear external gills , branching off from the gill arches. These are reduced in adulthood, their respiratory function taken over by the internal gills proper in fishes and by cutaneous respiration in most amphibians. While some amphibians such as axolotl retain

2800-467: The pons and the cerebellum , the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata , and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle . Rhinencephalon , amygdala , hippocampus , neocortex , basal ganglia , lateral ventricles Epithalamus , thalamus , hypothalamus , subthalamus , pituitary gland , pineal gland , third ventricle Tectum , cerebral peduncle , pretectum , mesencephalic duct Pons , cerebellum Planarians , members of

2880-418: The spinal cord . The other feature unique to vertebrates is the presence of a cranium , or skull. The vertebrates make up the subphylum Vertebrata with some 65,000 species in the phylum Chordata . The vertebrates include mammals , birds , amphibians , and various classes of reptiles and fish . Classes of fish include the jawless Agnatha , and the jawed Gnathostomata . The jawed fish include both

2960-456: The sturgeon . Most vertebrates are aquatic and carry out gas exchange via gills . The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of crescentic openings from the pharynx to the outside. Each gill is supported by a cartilaginous or bony gill arch , which develop embryonically from pharyngeal arches . Bony fish have three pairs of gill arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while

3040-427: The tectum ). The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters ) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos , koalas , opossums , wombats , and Tasmanian devils ) lack the convolutions – gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental mammals ( eutherians ). Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of

3120-444: The thyroid in most vertebrates. Vertebrates vary in body length ranging from the frog species Brachycephalus pulex , a Brazilian flea toad, with a minimum adult snout–vent length of 6.45 millimetres (0.254 in) to the blue whale , at up to 33 m (108 ft). With only one exception, the defining characteristic of all vertebrates is the vertebral column , in which the embryonic notochord found in all chordates

3200-440: The thyroid gland , the larynx , the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals ) and, in mammals, the malleus and incus . The central nervous system of vertebrates is based on the embryonic dorsal nerve cord (which then flattens into a neural plate before folding and fusing over into a hollow neural tube ) running along the dorsal aspect of the notochord . Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates

3280-449: The 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans. In arthropods , the ventral nerve cord , the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS. Arthropoda, unlike vertebrates, have inhibitory motor neurons due to their small size. The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in

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3360-713: The Cephalochordata.   Amphioxiformes (lancelets)  [REDACTED]   Tunicata /Urochordata ( sea squirts , salps , larvaceans )  [REDACTED]   Vertebrata   [REDACTED] Vertebrates originated during the Cambrian explosion , which saw a rise in organism diversity. The earliest known vertebrates belongs to the Chengjiang biota and lived about 518 million years ago. These include Haikouichthys , Myllokunmingia , Zhongjianichthys , and probably Haikouella . Unlike

3440-706: The Corporation for National and Community Service, commonly known as AmeriCorps Council for National Security , military junta of Thailand in 2006 Cuban National Series , baseball league Szekler National Council ( Consiliul Național Secuiesc ), Romania Media [ edit ] Cartoon Network Studios Catholic News Service China News Service City News Service CNSNews , formerly Cybercast News Service Other [ edit ] Cairns International Airport , IATA code Chateau Neuf Spelemannslag , Norwegian folk music group Chinese National Standards Cooper Nuclear Station ,

3520-612: The Notochordata, was placed as sister group to the Tunicata (Urochordata). Studies since 2006 analyzing large sequencing datasets however strongly support Olfactores (tunicates + vertebrates) as a clade, and hence the placement of Cephalochordata as sister-group to Olfactores (known as the " Olfactores hypothesis "). The following cladogram summarizes the relationships between the Olfactores (vertebrates and tunicates) and

3600-459: The PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves . Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle , which is innervated by accessory nerves as well as certain cervical spinal nerves ). Two pairs of cranial nerves;

3680-489: The aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefulness and consciousness, such as though the SCN . The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger , thirst and maternal bonding . This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland . Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of

3760-422: The alternative name for vertebrates, the craniates ). All vertebrate embryos develop transient pharyngeal arches , which in fish develop into the branchial arches that support the gills . Other vertebrate features are a jaw , hyoid and/or the middle ear ossicles . An iodine-concentrating organ called the endostyle , which functions as a filter feeding organ in aquatic animals has evolved into

3840-461: The amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement. The PNS consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells . Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along

3920-477: The basic chordate body plan of five synapomorphies . These are a rigid axial skeleton that includes a vertebral column developed around an elastic notochord . The notochord becomes the intervertebral discs , and runs dorsally to the gut tube along the length of an animal, hence the common name of backbone. The axial endoskeleton typically continues beyond the anus / cloaca to form an elongated tail . Some vertebrates evolved to become tailless with only

4000-405: The blood, protecting the brain from most neurotoxins commonly found in food. Within the meninges the brain and spinal cord are bathed in cerebral spinal fluid which replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals . In vertebrates, the CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity , while the brain is housed in the cranial cavity within the skull . The spinal cord

4080-415: The body, above the gut and notochord / spine . The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb , while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain,

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4160-431: The brain. It is protected by the vertebrae . The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, and continues through or starting below the foramen magnum , and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra , occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal . Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS

4240-413: The brain. The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS. It is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system in general. The brain is the major functional unit of the CNS. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes , the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system. The brainstem consists of

4320-429: The central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant , can have very high mortality rates. Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning. Specialty professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer

4400-409: The class's common ancestor. For instance, descendants of the first reptiles include modern reptiles, mammals and birds; the agnathans have given rise to the jawed vertebrates ; the bony fishes have given rise to the land vertebrates ; the traditional " amphibians " have given rise to the reptiles (traditionally including the synapsids or mammal-like "reptiles"), which in turn have given rise to

4480-433: The cognitive capabilities of the brain. Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum as well as several additional commissures. One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the cortex , made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain. Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks. The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories,

4560-415: The external gills into adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods , who evolved lungs (which are homologous to swim bladders ) to breathe air. While the more specialized terrestrial vertebrates lack gills, the gill arches form during fetal development , and form the basis of essential structures such as jaws ,

4640-432: The face and neck through cranial nerves, Autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial nerve . A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such functions may engage the heart , blood vessels , and pupils , among others. The brainstem also holds the reticular formation , a group of nuclei involved in both arousal and alertness . The cerebellum lies behind

4720-431: The individual. The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for

4800-599: The late Cambrian to the end of the Triassic. The first jawed vertebrates may have appeared in the late Ordovician (~445 mya) and became common in the Devonian period , often known as the "Age of Fishes". The two groups of bony fishes , the Actinopterygii and Sarcopterygii , evolved and became common. The Devonian also saw the demise of virtually all jawless fishes save for lampreys and hagfishes, as well as

4880-460: The mammals and birds. Most scientists working with vertebrates use a classification based purely on phylogeny , organized by their known evolutionary history and sometimes disregarding the conventional interpretations of their anatomy and physiology. In phylogenetics , the relationships between animals are illustrated as a hierarchy known as a phylogenetic tree . The cladogram below is based on studies compiled by Philippe Janvier and others for

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4960-1079: The neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans. In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions. Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins , possibly related to their complex echolocation . There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including infections such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis , early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism , seizure disorders such as epilepsy , headache disorders such as migraine , late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease , Parkinson's disease , and essential tremor , autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis , genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease , as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy . Lastly, cancers of

5040-439: The nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out. The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the final common pathway to the thalamus and ultimately to the cortex. Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of

5120-471: The nerves. Axons in the CNS are often very short, barely a few millimeters, and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1 meter in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed. The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ. A Schwann cell usually myelinates

5200-423: The only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex (main part of the telencephalon excluding olfactory bulb) known as the neocortex . This part of the brain is, in mammals, involved in higher thinking and further processing of all senses in the sensory cortices (processing for smell was previously only done by its bulb while those for non-smell senses were only done by

5280-423: The optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a "relay station", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres ( neocortex ). Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In common with

5360-472: The other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate body plan: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail. All of these early vertebrates lacked jaws in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to the seabed. A vertebrate group of uncertain phylogeny, small eel-like conodonts , are known from microfossils of their paired tooth segments from

5440-399: The phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a CNS and a PNS . Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS. Like vertebrates, have a distinct CNS and PNS. The nerves projecting laterally from the CNS form their PNS. A molecular study found that more than 95% of

5520-400: The pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs. Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected through practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements. Despite its previous classification as

5600-426: The primitive jawless fish have seven pairs. The ancestral vertebrates likely had more arches than seven, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gill opens, although most, if not all, of these openings are actually involved in filter feeding rather than respiration . In jawed vertebrates , the first gill arch pair evolved into the jointed jaws and form an additional oral cavity ahead of

5680-416: The process of neurogenesis , forming the rudiment of the CNS. The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord . The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon , and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon . (By six weeks in the human embryo)

5760-416: The prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon ; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon . The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube. As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum , the hippocampus and

5840-454: The ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds ) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube . The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation . At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone . The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells , multiply and generate neurons through

5920-451: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title CNS . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=CNS&oldid=1254963792 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Articles containing Romanian-language text Short description

6000-460: The spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli. This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses. All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa , sacral plexa etc. Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but

6080-650: The succeeding Carboniferous . Amniotes branched from amphibious tetrapods early in the Carboniferous period. The synapsid amniotes were dominant during the late Paleozoic, the Permian , while diapsid amniotes became dominant during the Mesozoic . In the sea, the teleosts and sharks became dominant. Mesothermic synapsids called cynodonts gave rise to endothermic mammals and diapsids called dinosaurs eventually gave rise to endothermic birds , both in

6160-413: The telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the entire mesencephalon . Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts . Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are

6240-402: The two classes). Tetrapods comprise the dominant megafauna of most terrestrial environments and also include many partially or fully aquatic groups (e.g., sea snakes , penguins , cetaceans). There are several ways of classifying animals. Evolutionary systematics relies on anatomy , physiology and evolutionary history, which is determined through similarities in anatomy and, if possible,

6320-436: The various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed retinas and optical nerves form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish which may have secondarily lost the structures. The forebrain is more well-developed in most tetrapods and subdivided into the telencephalon and diencephalon , while the midbrain dominates in fish and some salamanders . In vertebrates with paired appendages, especially tetrapods,

6400-401: The vertebrate subphylum. Specifically, 5 CSIs in the following proteins: protein synthesis elongation factor-2 , eukaryotic translation initiation factor 3 , adenosine kinase and a protein related to ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase are exclusively shared by all vertebrates and reliably distinguish them from all other animals. A specific relationship between vertebrates and tunicates

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