A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, or substrate . The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, or both. Coatings may be applied as liquids , gases or solids e.g. powder coatings .
71-420: Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses, which are protecting the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration, and the paint on large industrial pipes is for identification (e.g. blue for process water, red for fire-fighting control) in addition to preventing corrosion . Along with corrosion resistance, functional coatings may also be applied to change
142-428: A painting . Paint can be made in many colors and types. Most paints are either oil-based or water-based, and each has distinct characteristics. Primitive forms of paint were used tens of thousands of years ago in cave paintings . Clean-up solvents are also different for water-based paint than oil-based paint. Water-based paints and oil-based paints will cure differently based on the outside ambient temperature of
213-547: A 100,000-year-old human-made ochre -based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the same cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments and making a primitive paint-like substance. Interior walls at the 5,000-year-old Ness of Brodgar have been found to incorporate individual stones painted in yellows, reds, and oranges, using ochre pigment made of haematite mixed with animal fat, milk or eggs. Ancient colored walls at Dendera , Egypt , which were exposed for years to
284-440: A coating depends primarily on the function required of the coating and also on aesthetics required such as color and gloss. The four primary ingredients are the resin (or binder), solvent which may be water (or solventless), pigment (s) and additives. Research is ongoing to remove heavy metals from coating formulations completely. For example, on the basis of experimental and epidemiological evidence, it has been classified by
355-537: A company called Emerton and Manby was advertising exceptionally low-priced paints that had been ground with labor-saving technology: One Pound of Colour ground in a Horse-Mill will paint twelve Yards of Work, whereas Colour ground any other Way, will not do half that Quantity. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution , in the mid-18th century, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, and an alternative to lead-based pigments had been found in
426-437: A cross-linked film. Depending on composition, they may need to dry first by evaporation of solvent. Classic two-package epoxies or polyurethanes would fall into this category. The "drying oils", counter-intuitively, cure by a crosslinking reaction even if they are not put through an oven cycle and seem to dry in air. The film formation mechanism of the simplest examples involves the first evaporation of solvents followed by
497-541: A particular reflective property, such as high gloss, satin, matte, or flat appearance. A major coating application is to protect metal from corrosion. Automotive coatings are used to enhance the appearance and durability of vehicles. These include primers, basecoats, and clearcoats, primarily applied with spray guns and electrostatically. The body and underbody of automobiles receive some form of underbody coating . Such anticorrosion coatings may use graphene in combination with water-based epoxies . Coatings are used to seal
568-627: A reaction with oxygen from the environment over a period of days, weeks, and even months to create a crosslinked network. Classic alkyd enamels would fall into this category. Oxidative cure coatings are catalyzed by metal complex driers such as cobalt naphthenate though cobalt octoate is more common. Recent environmental requirements restrict the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and alternative means of curing have been developed, generally for industrial purposes. UV curing paints, for example, enable formulation with very low amounts of solvent, or even none at all. This can be achieved because of
639-582: A simple brush to expensive precision machinery in the electronics industry. Limiting coating area is crucial in some applications, such as printing . "Roll-to-roll" or "web-based" coating is the process of applying a thin film of functional material to a substrate on a roll, such as paper, fabric , film, foil, or sheet stock. This continuous process is highly efficient for producing large volumes of coated materials, which are essential in various industries including printing, packaging, and electronics. The technology allows for consistent high-quality application of
710-615: A specimen can be measured by an energy-dispersive spectrometer. As the energies of the X-rays are characteristic of the difference in energy between the two shells and of the atomic structure of the emitting element, EDS allows the elemental composition of the specimen to be measured. Four primary components of the EDS setup are Electron beam excitation is used in electron microscopes , scanning electron microscopes (SEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopes (STEM). X-ray beam excitation
781-410: A superconducting transition-edge sensor (TES) thermometer . The former absorbs X-rays emitted from the sample and converts this energy into heat; the latter measures the subsequent change in temperature due to the influx of heat. The EDS microcalorimeter has historically suffered from a number of drawbacks, including low count rates and small detector areas. The count rate is hampered by its reliance on
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#1732773059985852-406: A thinner oil is required. These volatile substances impart their properties temporarily—once the solvent has evaporated, the remaining paint is fixed to the surface. This component is optional: some paints have no diluent . Water is the main diluent for water-borne paints, even the co-solvent types. Solvent-borne, also called oil-based, paints can have various combinations of organic solvents as
923-489: A wall properly and evenly. The previous coats having dried would be white whereas the new wet coat would be distinctly pink. Ashland Inc. introduced foundry refractory coatings with similar principle in 2005 for use in foundries. Electrochromic paints change color in response to an applied electric current. Car manufacturer Nissan has been reportedly working on an electrochromic paint, based on particles of paramagnetic iron oxide . When subjected to an electromagnetic field
994-480: A white derivative of zinc oxide. Interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also increasingly used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and invented a paint that could be used from
1065-425: Is microscopy of a mounted cross-section of the coating and its substrate. The most common non-destructive techniques include ultrasonic thickness measurement, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), photothermal coating thickness measurement and micro hardness indentation . X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is also a classical characterization method to investigate the chemical composition of
1136-477: Is a misnomer because no chemical curing reactions are required to knit the film. On the other hand, thermosetting mechanisms are true curing mechanisms involving chemical reaction(s) among the polymers that make up the binder. Some films are formed by simply cooling the binder. For example, encaustic or wax paints are liquid when warm, and harden upon cooling. In many cases, they re-soften or liquify if reheated. Paints that dry by solvent evaporation and contain
1207-404: Is an analytical technique used for the elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a sample . It relies on an interaction of some source of X-ray excitation and a sample. Its characterization capabilities are due in large part to the fundamental principle that each element has a unique atomic structure allowing a unique set of peaks on its electromagnetic emission spectrum (which
1278-405: Is an opaque variant of watercolor , which is based around varying levels of translucency; both paints use gum arabic as the binder and water as a thinner. Gouache is also known as 'designer color' or 'body color'. Poster paint is a distemper paint that has been used primarily in the creation of student works, or by children. There are varying brands of poster paint and depending on the brand,
1349-469: Is another close relative of EDS, utilizing ejected electrons in a manner similar to that of AES. Information on the quantity and kinetic energy of ejected electrons is used to determine the binding energy of these now-liberated electrons, which is element-specific and allows chemical characterization of a sample. EDS is often contrasted with its spectroscopic counterpart, wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS). WDS differs from EDS in that it uses
1420-432: Is applied or removed, and so they change color. Color-changing paints can also be made by adding halochromic compounds or other organic pigments. One patent cites use of these indicators for wall coating applications for light-colored paints. When the paint is wet it is pink in color but upon drying it regains its original white color. As cited in patent, this property of the paint enabled two or more coats to be applied on
1491-522: Is called particle-induced X-ray emission or PIXE. EDS can be used to determine which chemical elements are present in a sample, and can be used to estimate their relative abundance. EDS also helps to measure multi-layer coating thickness of metallic coatings and analysis of various alloys. The accuracy of this quantitative analysis of sample composition is affected by various factors. Many elements will have overlapping X-ray emission peaks (e.g., Ti K β and V K α , Mn K β and Fe K α ). The accuracy of
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#17327730599851562-643: Is expressed as the volume solid . The binder is the film-forming component of paint. It is the only component that is always present among all the various types of formulations. Many binders must be thick enough to be applied and thinned. The type of thinner, if present, varies with the binder. The binder imparts properties such as gloss, durability, flexibility, and toughness. Binders include synthetic or natural resins such as alkyds , acrylics , vinyl-acrylics, vinyl acetate/ethylene (VAE), polyurethanes , polyesters , melamine resins , epoxy , silanes or siloxanes or oils . Binders can be categorized according to
1633-506: Is not an ingredient. These dispersions are prepared by emulsion polymerization . Such paints cure by a process called coalescence where first the water and then the trace, or coalescing, solvent, evaporate and draw together and soften the binder particles and fuse them together into irreversibly bound networked structures, so that the paint cannot redissolve in the solvent/water that originally carried it. The residual surfactants in paint , as well as hydrolytic effects with some polymers cause
1704-515: Is the main principle of spectroscopy ). The peak positions are predicted by the Moseley's law with accuracy much better than experimental resolution of a typical EDX instrument. To stimulate the emission of characteristic X-rays from a specimen a beam of electrons or X-ray is focused into the sample being studied. At rest, an atom within the sample contains ground state (or unexcited) electrons in discrete energy levels or electron shells bound to
1775-573: Is used in X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometers. A detector is used to convert X-ray energy into voltage signals; this information is sent to a pulse processor, which measures the signals and passes them onto an analyzer for data display and analysis. The most common detector used to be a Si(Li) detector cooled to cryogenic temperatures with liquid nitrogen . Now, newer systems are often equipped with silicon drift detectors (SDD) with Peltier cooling systems. Hazards and Safety The excess energy of
1846-464: The IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) as a human carcinogen by inhalation (class I) ( ISPESL , 2008). Coating processes may be classified as follows: Common roll-to-roll coating processes include: Paint Paint is a material or mixture that, when applied to a solid material and allowed to dry, adds a film-like layer. As art, this is used to create an image or images known as
1917-418: The diffraction of X-rays on special crystals to separate its raw data into spectral components (wavelengths). WDS has a much finer spectral resolution than EDS. WDS also avoids the problems associated with artifacts in EDS (false peaks, noise from the amplifiers, and microphonics ). A high-energy beam of charged particles such as electrons or protons can be used to excite a sample rather than X-rays. This
1988-465: The high energy X-ray imaging technology (HEXITEC) system, are capable of achieving energy resolutions of the order of 1% at 100 keV. In recent years, a different type of EDS detector, based upon a superconducting microcalorimeter , has also become commercially available. This new technology combines the simultaneous detection capabilities of EDS with the high spectral resolution of WDS. The EDS microcalorimeter consists of two components: an absorber, and
2059-477: The resin binder. Most pigments used in paint tend to be spherical, but lamellar pigments, such as glass flake and MIO have overlapping plates, which impede the path of water molecules. For optimum performance MIO should have a high content of thin flake-like particles resembling mica . ISO 10601 sets two levels of MIO content. MIO is often derived from a form of hematite . Pigments can be classified as either natural or synthetic. Natural pigments are taken from
2130-627: The silicon drift detector (SDD). The SDD consists of a high-resistivity silicon chip where electrons are driven to a small collecting anode. The advantage lies in the extremely low capacitance of this anode, thereby utilizing shorter processing times and allowing very high throughput. Benefits of the SDD include: Because the capacitance of the SDD chip is independent of the active area of the detector, much larger SDD chips can be utilized (40 mm or more). This allows for even higher count rate collection. Further benefits of large area chips include: Where
2201-824: The Color Index system, which is commercially significant. Besides the three main categories of ingredients (binder, diluent, pigment), paint can have a wide variety of miscellaneous additives, which are usually added in small amounts, yet provide a significant effect on the product. Some examples include additives to modify surface tension , improve flow properties, improve the finished appearance, increase wet edge, improve pigment stability, impart antifreeze properties, control foaming, control skinning, create acrylic pouring cells, etc. Other types of additives include catalysts , thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers , texturizers, adhesion promoters, UV stabilizers, flatteners (de-glossing agents), biocides to fight bacterial growth and
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2272-511: The UK and Latex in the United States is a water-borne dispersion of sub-micrometer polymer particles. These terms in their respective countries cover all paints that use synthetic polymers such as acrylic, vinyl acrylic ( PVA ), styrene acrylic, etc. as binders. The term "latex" in the context of paint in the United States simply means an aqueous dispersion; latex rubber from the rubber tree
2343-537: The X-ray energies of interest are in excess of ~ 30 keV, traditional silicon-based technologies suffer from poor quantum efficiency due to a reduction in the detector stopping power . Detectors produced from high density semiconductors such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) have improved efficiency at higher X-ray energies and are capable of room temperature operation. Single element systems, and more recently pixelated imaging detectors such as
2414-402: The binder is left on the coated surface. Thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the "vehicle solids", sometimes called the "resin solids" of the formula. This is the proportion of the wet coating weight that is binder, i.e., the polymer backbone of the film that will remain after drying or curing is complete. The volume of paint after it has dried, therefore only leaving the solids,
2485-401: The coating material over large surface areas, enhancing productivity and uniformity. Coatings can be both decorative and have other functions. A pipe carrying water for a fire suppression system can be coated with a red (for identification) anticorrosion paint. Most coatings to some extent protect the substrate, such as maintenance coatings for metals and concrete. A decorative coating can offer
2556-568: The coating membrane. Wood has been a key material in construction since ancient times, so its preservation by coating has received much attention. Efforts to improve the performance of wood coatings continue. Coatings are used to alter tribological properties and wear characteristics. These include anti-friction, wear and scuffing resistance coatings for rolling-element bearings Other functions of coatings include: Numerous destructive and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) methods exist for characterizing coatings. The most common destructive method
2627-419: The composition, amount, and density of material it has to pass through to reach the detector. Because of this X-ray absorption effect and similar effects, accurate estimation of the sample composition from the measured X-ray emission spectrum requires the application of quantitative correction procedures, which are sometimes referred to as matrix corrections. There is a trend towards a newer EDS detector, called
2698-425: The difficulty in acquiring and working the materials meant that they were rarely used (and indeed, the slow drying was seen as a disadvantage ). The paint was made with the yolk of eggs , and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. The pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils. Most paints use either oil or water as a base (the diluent , solvent, or vehicle for
2769-540: The diluent, including aliphatics , aromatics , alcohols , ketones and white spirit . Specific examples are organic solvents such as petroleum distillate , esters , glycol ethers, and the like. Sometimes volatile low-molecular weight synthetic resins also serve as diluents. Pigments are solid particles or flakes incorporated in the paint, usually to contribute color to the paint film. Pigments impart color by selective absorption of certain wavelengths of light and/or by scattering or reflecting light. The particle size of
2840-434: The earth or plant sources and include colorants such as metal oxides or carbon black, or various clays , calcium carbonate , mica , silicas , and talcs . Synthetics include a host of colorants created in the lab as well as engineered molecules, calcined clays, blanc fixe , precipitated calcium carbonate, and synthetic pyrogenic silicas. The pigments and dyes that are used as colorants are classified by chemical type using
2911-424: The electron that migrates to an inner shell to fill the newly created hole can do more than emit an X-ray. Often, instead of X-ray emission, the excess energy is transferred to a third electron from a further outer shell, prompting its ejection. This ejected species is called an Auger electron , and the method for its analysis is known as Auger electron spectroscopy (AES). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
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2982-416: The elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a gummy substance and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors: white, black, blue, red, yellow, and green. They first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out
3053-427: The foundation of Rome . After the lapse of so many centuries, he expressed great surprise and admiration at their freshness. In the 13th century, oil was used to detail tempera paintings. In the 14th century, Cennino Cennini described a painting technique utilizing tempera painting covered by light layers of oil. The slow-drying properties of organic oils were commonly known to early European painters. However,
3124-489: The functional pigments. These are typically used to build film thickness and/or reduce the cost of the paint, or they can impart toughness and texture to the film. Fillers are usually cheap and inert materials, such as diatomaceous earth , talc , lime , barytes , clay, etc. Floor paints that must resist abrasion may contain fine quartz sand as a filler. Sometimes, a single pigment can serve both decorative and functional purposes. For example some decorative pigments protect
3195-402: The heating of the substrate after electrostatic application of the dry powder. So-called "catalyzed" lacquers" or "crosslinking latex" coatings are designed to form films by a combination of methods: classic drying plus a curing reaction that benefits from the catalyst. There are paints called plastisols/organosols, which are made by blending PVC granules with a plasticiser. These are stoved and
3266-408: The lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, generally of a dark tinge. The oldest known oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c. 650 AD . The works are located in cave-like rooms carved from the cliffs of Afghanistan's Bamiyan Valley , "using walnut and poppy seed oils." Pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea , which had been made before
3337-648: The like. Additives normally do not significantly alter the percentages of individual components in a formulation. Various technologies exist for making paints that change color. Thermochromic ink and coatings contain materials that change conformation when heat is applied or removed, and so they change color. Liquid crystals have been used in such paints, such as in the thermometer strips and tapes used in aquaria and novelty/promotional thermal cups and straws. Photochromic materials are used to make eyeglasses and other products. Similar to thermochromic molecules, photochromic molecules change conformation when light energy
3408-419: The market with the development of acrylic and other latex paints. Milk paints (also called casein ), where the medium is derived from the natural emulsion that is milk , were common in the 19th century and are still used. Used by the earliest western artists, Egg tempera (where the medium is an emulsion of raw egg yolk mixed with oil) remains in use as well, as are encaustic wax -based paints. Gouache
3479-408: The measured composition is also affected by the nature of the sample. X-rays are generated by any atom in the sample that is sufficiently excited by the incoming beam. These X-rays are emitted in all directions (isotropically), and so they may not all escape the sample. The likelihood of an X-ray escaping the specimen, and thus being available to detect and measure, depends on the energy of the X-ray and
3550-413: The mechanisms for film formation. Thermoplastic mechanisms include drying and coalescence. Drying refers to simply evaporating the solvent or thinner to leave a coherent film behind. Coalescence refers to a mechanism that involves drying followed by actual interpenetration and fusion of formerly discrete particles. Thermoplastic film-forming mechanisms are sometimes described as "thermoplastic cure," but that
3621-463: The mix coalesces. The main purposes of the diluent are to dissolve the polymer and adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the paint film. It also controls flow and application properties, and in some cases can affect the stability of the paint while in liquid state. Its main function is as the carrier for the non-volatile components. To spread heavier oils (for example, linseed) as in oil-based interior house paint,
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#17327730599853692-420: The monomers and oligomers used in the coating have relatively very low molecular weight, and are therefore low enough in viscosity to enable good fluid flow without the need for additional thinner. If solvent is present in significant amounts, generally it is mostly evaporated first and then crosslinking is initiated by ultraviolet light. Similarly, powder coatings contain no solvent. Flow and cure are produced by
3763-561: The nanometer thick surface layer of a material. Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry ( SEM-EDX , or SEM-EDS) allows to visualize the surface texture and to probe its elementary chemical composition. Other characterization methods include transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning tunneling microscope (STM), and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS). Various methods of Chromatography are also used, as well as thermogravimetric analysis. The formulation of
3834-417: The nanoparticle sizes rather than picking/mixing minerals to do so. These paints weighed a tiny fraction of the weight of conventional paints, a particular advantage in air and road vehicles. They reflect heat from sunlight and do not break down outdoors. Preliminary experiments suggest it can reduce temperatures by 20 to 30 degrees Fahrenheit vs conventional paint. Its constituents are also less toxic. Making
3905-403: The nucleus. The incident beam may excite an electron in an inner shell, ejecting it from the shell while creating an electron hole where the electron was. An electron from an outer, higher-energy shell then fills the hole, and the difference in energy between the higher-energy shell and the lower energy shell may be released in the form of an X-ray. The number and energy of the X-rays emitted from
3976-660: The object being painted (such as a house). Usually, the object being painted must be over 10 °C (50 °F), although some manufacturers of external paints/primers claim they can be applied when temperatures are as low as 2 °C (35 °F). Paint was used in some of the earliest known human artworks. Some cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre , hematite , manganese oxide , and charcoal may have been made by early Homo sapiens as long as 40,000 years ago. Paint may be even older. In 2003 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of
4047-430: The paint starts with a thin double-sided mirror. The researchers deposited metallic nanoparticles on both sides of the sheet. Large sheets were ground to produce small flakes. The vehicle is composed of binder; if it is necessary to thin it with a diluent like solvent or water, it is a combination of binder and diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated and only
4118-408: The paint to remain susceptible to softening and, over time, degradation by water. The general term of latex paint is usually used in the United States, while the term emulsion paint is used for the same products in the UK, and the term latex paint is not used at all. Paints that cure by polymerization are generally one- or two-package coatings that polymerize by way of a chemical reaction and cure into
4189-476: The paramagnetic particles change spacing, modifying their color and reflective properties. The electromagnetic field would be formed using the conductive metal of the car body. Electrochromic paints can be applied to plastic substrates as well, using a different coating chemistry. The technology involves using special dyes that change conformation when an electric current is applied across the film itself. This new technology has been used to achieve glare protection at
4260-536: The pigment and oil mixture would have been ground into a paste with a mortar and pestle. The painters did the process by hand, which exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder. In 1718, Marshall Smith invented a "Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colors" in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that dramatically increased the efficiency of pigment grinding. Soon,
4331-529: The pigment is critical to the light-scattering mechanism. The size of such particles can be measured with a Hegman gauge . Dyes, on the other hand, are dissolve in the paint and impart color only by the selective absorption mechanism. Paints can be formulated with only pigments, only dyes, both, or neither. Pigments can also be used to give the paint special physical or optical properties, as opposed to imparting color, in which case they are called functional pigments. Fillers or extenders are an important class of
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#17327730599854402-471: The pigment). The Flemish-trained or influenced Antonello da Messina , who Vasari wrongly credited with the introduction of oil paint to Italy, does seem to have improved the formula by adding litharge , or lead (II) oxide. A still extant example of 17th-century house oil painting is Ham House in Surrey , England , where a primer was used along with several undercoats and an elaborate decorative overcoat;
4473-473: The powder and causes it to adhere to the surface. The reasons for doing this involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and perhaps even the chemistry of the substrate (the object being painted). This is called " powder coating " an object. SEM-EDX Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy ( EDS , EDX , EDXS or XEDS ), sometimes called energy dispersive X-ray analysis ( EDXA or EDAX ) or energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis ( EDXMA ),
4544-455: The quality will differ. More inexpensive brands will often crack or fade over time if they are left on a poster for an extended time. Paint can be applied as a solid, a gas, a gaseous suspension ( aerosol ) or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on the practical or artistic results desired. As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts
4615-640: The solid binder dissolved in a solvent are known as lacquers . A solid film forms when the solvent evaporates. Because no chemical crosslinking is involved, the film can re-dissolve in solvent; lacquers are unsuitable for applications where chemical resistance is important. Classic nitrocellulose lacquers fall into this category, as do non-grain raising stains composed of dyes dissolved in solvent. Performance varies by formulation, but lacquers generally tend to have better UV resistance and lower corrosion resistance than comparable systems that cure by polymerization or coalescence. The paint type known as Emulsion in
4686-442: The substrate from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light by making the paint opaque to these wavelengths, i.e. by selectively absorbing them. These hiding pigments include titanium dioxide , phthalo blue , red iron oxide , and many others. Some pigments are toxic, such as the lead pigments that are used in lead paint . Paint manufacturers began replacing white lead pigments with titanium white (titanium dioxide), before lead
4757-407: The surface of concrete, such as seamless polymer/resin flooring , bund wall/containment lining , waterproofing and damp proofing concrete walls, and bridge decks . Most roof coatings are designed primarily for waterproofing, though sun reflection (to reduce heating and cooling) may also be a consideration. They tend to be elastomeric to allow for movement of the roof without cracking within
4828-463: The surface properties of the substrate, such as adhesion , wettability , or wear resistance. In other cases the coating adds a completely new property, such as a magnetic response or electrical conductivity (as in semiconductor device fabrication , where the substrate is a wafer ), and forms an essential part of the finished product. A major consideration for most coating processes is controlling coating thickness. Methods of achieving this range from
4899-539: The tin without preparation. It was only when the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well and lasted for a long time. Through the 20th century, paints used pigments , typically suspended in a liquid. In the 21st century, "paints" that used structural color were created. Aluminum flakes dotted with smaller aluminum nanoparticles could be tuned to produce arbitrary colors by adjusting
4970-566: The touch of a button in passenger airplane windows. Color can also change depending on viewing angle, using iridescence , for example, in ChromaFlair . Since the time of the Renaissance , siccative (drying) oil paints, primarily linseed oil , have been the most commonly used kind of paints in fine art applications; oil paint is still common today. However, in the 20th century, new water-borne paints such acrylic paints , entered
5041-743: Was banned in paint for residential use in 1978 by the US Consumer Product Safety Commission. The titanium dioxide used in most paints today is often coated with silica/alumina/zirconium for various reasons, such as better exterior durability, or better hiding performance (opacity) promoted by more optimal spacing within the paint film. Micaceous iron oxide (MIO) is another alternative to lead for protection of steel, giving more protection against water and light damage than most paints. When MIO pigments are ground into fine particles, most cleave into shiny layers, which reflect light, thus minimising UV degradation and protecting
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