A codec is a device or computer program that encodes or decodes a data stream or signal . Codec is a portmanteau of coder/decoder .
66-487: In electronic communications, an endec is a device that acts as both an encoder and a decoder on a signal or data stream, and hence is a type of codec. Endec is a portmanteau of encoder/decoder . A coder or encoder encodes a data stream or a signal for transmission or storage, possibly in encrypted form, and the decoder function reverses the encoding for playback or editing. Codecs are used in videoconferencing , streaming media , and video editing applications. In
132-416: A voltage or current (depending on type) that represents the value presented on their digital inputs. This output would then generally be filtered and amplified for use. To recover the original signal from the sampled data, a demodulator can apply the procedure of modulation in reverse. After each sampling period, the demodulator reads the next value and transitions the output signal to the new value. As
198-442: A " stish " or a " starsh ", it would be a blend. Furthermore, when blends are formed by shortening established compounds or phrases, they can be considered clipped compounds , such as romcom for romantic comedy . Blends of two or more words may be classified from each of three viewpoints: morphotactic, morphonological, and morphosemantic. Blends may be classified morphotactically into two kinds: total and partial . In
264-438: A .wav or .aiff file) has long been a standard across multiple platforms, but its transmission over networks is slow and expensive compared with more modern compressed formats, such as Opus and MP3. Many multimedia data streams contain both audio and video , and often some metadata that permits synchronization of audio and video. Each of these three streams may be handled by different programs, processes, or hardware; but for
330-410: A DS0 is either μ-law (mu-law) PCM (North America and Japan) or A-law PCM (Europe and most of the rest of the world). These are logarithmic compression systems where a 12- or 13-bit linear PCM sample number is mapped into an 8-bit value. This system is described by international standard G.711 . Where circuit costs are high and loss of voice quality is acceptable, it sometimes makes sense to compress
396-485: A NRZ system to be synchronized using in-band information, there must not be long sequences of identical symbols, such as ones or zeroes. For binary PCM systems, the density of 1-symbols is called ones-density . Ones-density is often controlled using precoding techniques such as run-length limited encoding, where the PCM code is expanded into a slightly longer code with a guaranteed bound on ones-density before modulation into
462-535: A form suitable for carrying on horseback; (now esp.) one in the form of a stiff leather case hinged at the back to open into two equal parts". According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD ), the etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau , from porter , "to carry", and manteau , "cloak" (from Old French mantel , from Latin mantellum ). According to
528-451: A function of amplitude (as with the A-law algorithm or the μ-law algorithm ). Though PCM is a more general term, it is often used to describe data encoded as LPCM. A PCM stream has two basic properties that determine the stream's fidelity to the original analog signal: the sampling rate , which is the number of times per second that samples are taken; and the bit depth , which determines
594-427: A kind of bath), the attributive blends of English are mostly head-final and mostly endocentric . As an example of an exocentric attributive blend, Fruitopia may metaphorically take the buyer to a fruity utopia (and not a utopian fruit); however, it is not a utopia but a drink. Coordinate blends (also called associative or portmanteau blends) combine two words having equal status, and have two heads. Thus brunch
660-455: A larger aggregate data stream , generally for transmission of multiple streams over a single physical link. One technique is called time-division multiplexing (TDM) and is widely used, notably in the modern public telephone system. The electronics involved in producing an accurate analog signal from the discrete data are similar to those used for generating the digital signal. These devices are digital-to-analog converters (DACs). They produce
726-531: A lower bit rate. There are thousands of audio and video codecs, ranging in cost from free to hundreds of dollars or more. This variety of codecs can create compatibility and obsolescence issues. The impact is lessened for older formats, for which free or nearly-free codecs have existed for a long time. The older formats are often ill-suited to modern applications, however, such as playback on small portable devices. For example, raw uncompressed PCM audio (44.1 kHz, 16-bit stereo, as represented on an audio CD or in
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#1732790202583792-589: A rate above 3500–4300 Hz; lower rates proved unsatisfactory. In 1920, the Bartlane cable picture transmission system used telegraph signaling of characters punched in paper tape to send samples of images quantized to 5 levels. In 1926, Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric patented a facsimile machine that transmitted its signal using 5-bit PCM, encoded by an opto-mechanical analog-to-digital converter . The machine did not go into production. British engineer Alec Reeves , unaware of previous work, conceived
858-552: A result of these transitions, the signal retains a significant amount of high-frequency energy due to imaging effects. To remove these undesirable frequencies, the demodulator passes the signal through a reconstruction filter that suppresses energy outside the expected frequency range (greater than the Nyquist frequency f s / 2 {\displaystyle f_{s}/2} ). Common sample depths for LPCM are 8, 16, 20 or 24 bits per sample . LPCM encodes
924-505: A single sound channel. Support for multichannel audio depends on file format and relies on synchronization of multiple LPCM streams. While two channels (stereo) is the most common format, systems can support up to 8 audio channels (7.1 surround) or more. Common sampling frequencies are 48 kHz as used with DVD format videos, or 44.1 kHz as used in CDs. Sampling frequencies of 96 kHz or 192 kHz can be used on some equipment, but
990-646: A time. Rather than natural binary, the grid of Goodall's later tube was perforated to produce a glitch-free Gray code and produced all bits simultaneously by using a fan beam instead of a scanning beam. In the United States, the National Inventors Hall of Fame has honored Bernard M. Oliver and Claude Shannon as the inventors of PCM, as described in "Communication System Employing Pulse Code Modulation", U.S. patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, granted in 1956. Another patent by
1056-486: A total blend, each of the words creating the blend is reduced to a mere splinter. Some linguists limit blends to these (perhaps with additional conditions): for example, Ingo Plag considers "proper blends" to be total blends that semantically are coordinate, the remainder being "shortened compounds". Commonly for English blends, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another: Much less commonly in English,
1122-423: A word formed by combining the meanings, and parts of the sounds, of two or more words together. English examples include smog , coined by blending smoke and fog , as well as motel , from motor ( motorist ) and hotel . A blend is similar to a contraction . On the one hand, mainstream blends tend to be formed at a particular historical moment followed by a rapid rise in popularity. Contractions, on
1188-406: Is frankenword , an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending " Frankenstein " and "word". PCM audio Pulse-code modulation ( PCM ) is a method used to digitally represent analog signals . It is the standard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs , digital telephony and other digital audio applications. In a PCM stream , the amplitude of
1254-477: Is a Japanese blend that has entered the English language. The Vietnamese language also encourages blend words formed from Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . For example, the term Việt Cộng is derived from the first syllables of "Việt Nam" (Vietnam) and "Cộng sản" (communist). Many corporate brand names , trademarks, and initiatives, as well as names of corporations and organizations themselves, are blends. For example, Wiktionary , one of Misplaced Pages 's sister projects,
1320-496: Is a blend of wiki and dictionary . The word portmanteau was introduced in this sense by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871), where Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the coinage of unusual words used in " Jabberwocky ". Slithy means "slimy and lithe" and mimsy means "miserable and flimsy". Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the practice of combining words in various ways, comparing it to
1386-409: Is being compressed and uses it as a disguise. This disguise appears as a codec download through a pop-up alert or ad. When a user goes to click or download that codec, the malware is then installed on the computer. Once a fake codec is installed it is often used to access private data, corrupt an entire computer system or to keep spreading the malware. One of the previous most used ways to spread malware
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#17327902025831452-440: Is both phonological and orthographic, but with no other shortening: The overlap may be both phonological and orthographic, and with some additional shortening to at least one of the ingredients: Such an overlap may be discontinuous: These are also termed imperfect blends. It can occur with three components: The phonological overlap need not also be orthographic: If the phonological but non-orthographic overlap encompasses
1518-699: Is neither a breakfasty lunch nor a lunchtime breakfast but instead some hybrid of breakfast and lunch; Oxbridge is equally Oxford and Cambridge universities. This too parallels (conventional, non-blend) compounds: an actor–director is equally an actor and a director. Two kinds of coordinate blends are particularly conspicuous: those that combine (near‑) synonyms: and those that combine (near‑) opposites: Blending can also apply to roots rather than words, for instance in Israeli Hebrew : "There are two possible etymological analyses for Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár 'bank clerk, teller'. The first
1584-401: Is no longer identifiable (visually, audibly, or both). Using more than one codec or encoding scheme successively can also degrade quality significantly. The decreasing cost of storage capacity and network bandwidth has a tendency to reduce the need for lossy codecs for some media. Many popular codecs are lossy. They reduce quality in order to maximize compression. Often, this type of compression
1650-441: Is not an ISO standard . There are also other well-known container formats, such as Ogg , ASF , QuickTime , RealMedia , Matroska , and DivX Media Format . MPEG transport stream , MPEG program stream , MP4 , and ISO base media file format are examples of container formats that are ISO standardized. Fake codecs are used when an online user takes a type of codec and installs viruses and other malware into whatever data
1716-433: Is represented by various shorter substitutes – ‑otel ... – which I shall call splinters. Words containing splinters I shall call blends". Thus, at least one of the parts of a blend, strictly speaking, is not a complete morpheme , but instead a mere splinter or leftover word fragment. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a blend, of star and fish , as it includes both words in full. However, if it were called
1782-405: Is that it consists of (Hebrew>) Israeli כסף késef 'money' and the ( International /Hebrew>) Israeli agentive suffix ר- -ár . The second is that it is a quasi- portmanteau word which blends כסף késef 'money' and (Hebrew>) Israeli ספר √spr 'count'. Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár started as a brand name but soon entered the common language. Even if the second analysis is the correct one,
1848-716: Is the codecs used in the sound cards of personal computers. A video codec accomplishes the same task for video signals. When implementing the Infrared Data Association (IrDA) protocol, an endec may be used between the UART and the optoelectronic systems. In addition to encoding a signal, a codec may also compress the data to reduce transmission bandwidth or storage space. Compression codecs are classified primarily into lossy codecs and lossless codecs. Lossless codecs are often used for archiving data in compressed form while retaining all information present in
1914-629: Is virtually indistinguishable from the original uncompressed sound or images, depending on the codec and the settings used. The most widely used lossy data compression technique in digital media is based on the discrete cosine transform (DCT), used in compression standards such as JPEG images, H.26x and MPEG video, and MP3 and AAC audio. Smaller data sets ease the strain on relatively expensive storage sub-systems such as non-volatile memory and hard disk , as well as write-once-read-many formats such as CD-ROM , DVD , and Blu-ray Disc . Lower data rates also reduce cost and improve performance when
1980-533: The OED Online , the etymology of the word is the "officer who carries the mantle of a person in a high position (1507 in Middle French), case or bag for carrying clothing (1547), clothes rack (1640)". In modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet , a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. An occasional synonym for "portmanteau word"
2046-652: The SIGSALY encryption equipment, conveyed high-level Allied communications during World War II . In 1943 the Bell Labs researchers who designed the SIGSALY system became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Reeves. In 1949, for the Canadian Navy's DATAR system, Ferranti Canada built a working PCM radio system that was able to transmit digitized radar data over long distances. PCM in
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2112-474: The public switched telephone network (PSTN) had been largely digitized with very-large-scale integration (VLSI) CMOS PCM codec-filters, widely used in electronic switching systems for telephone exchanges , user-end modems and a wide range of digital transmission applications such as the integrated services digital network (ISDN), cordless telephones and cell phones . PCM is the method of encoding typically used for uncompressed digital audio. In
2178-441: The analog signal is sampled at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized to the nearest value within a range of digital steps. Alec Reeves , Claude Shannon , Barney Oliver and John R. Pierce are credited with its invention. Linear pulse-code modulation ( LPCM ) is a specific type of PCM in which the quantization levels are linearly uniform. This is in contrast to PCM encodings in which quantization levels vary as
2244-502: The beginning of one word may be followed by the beginning of another: Some linguists do not regard beginning+beginning concatenations as blends, instead calling them complex clippings, clipping compounds or clipped compounds . Unusually in English, the end of one word may be followed by the end of another: A splinter of one word may replace part of another, as in three coined by Lewis Carroll in " Jabberwocky ": They are sometimes termed intercalative blends; these words are among
2310-439: The benefits have been debated. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem shows PCM devices can operate without introducing distortions within their designed frequency bands if they provide a sampling frequency at least twice that of the highest frequency contained in the input signal. For example, in telephony , the usable voice frequency band ranges from approximately 300 Hz to 3400 Hz. For effective reconstruction of
2376-445: The channel. In other cases, extra framing bits are added into the stream, which guarantees at least occasional symbol transitions. Another technique used to control ones-density is the use of a scrambler on the data, which will tend to turn the data stream into a stream that looks pseudo-random , but where the data can be recovered exactly by a complementary descrambler. In this case, long runs of zeroes or ones are still possible on
2442-675: The data is transmitted, e.g., over the internet. Two principal techniques are used in codecs, pulse-code modulation and delta modulation . Codecs are often designed to emphasize certain aspects of the media to be encoded. For example, a digital video (using a DV codec) of a sports event needs to encode motion well but not necessarily exact colors, while a video of an art exhibit needs to encode color and surface texture well. Audio codecs for cell phones need to have very low latency between source encoding and playback. In contrast, audio codecs for recording or broadcasting can use high-latency audio compression techniques to achieve higher fidelity at
2508-539: The diagram, a sine wave (red curve) is sampled and quantized for PCM. The sine wave is sampled at regular intervals, shown as vertical lines. For each sample, one of the available values (on the y-axis) is chosen. The PCM process is commonly implemented on a single integrated circuit called an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). This produces a fully discrete representation of the input signal (blue points) that can be easily encoded as digital data for storage or manipulation. Several PCM streams could also be multiplexed into
2574-419: The digital domain. These simple techniques have been largely rendered obsolete by modern transform-based audio compression techniques, such as modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) coding. In telephony, a standard audio signal for a single phone call is encoded as 8,000 samples per second , of 8 bits each, giving a 64 kbit/s digital signal known as DS0 . The default signal compression encoding on
2640-599: The final syllable ר- -ár apparently facilitated nativization since it was regarded as the Hebrew suffix ר- -år (probably of Persian pedigree), which usually refers to craftsmen and professionals, for instance as in Mendele Mocher Sforim 's coinage סמרטוטר smartutár 'rag-dealer'." Blending may occur with an error in lexical selection , the process by which a speaker uses his semantic knowledge to choose words. Lewis Carroll's explanation, which gave rise to
2706-556: The first commercial digital recordings. In 1972, Denon unveiled the first 8-channel digital recorder, the DN-023R, which used a 4-head open reel broadcast video tape recorder to record in 47.25 kHz, 13-bit PCM audio. In 1977, Denon developed the portable PCM recording system, the DN-034R. Like the DN-023R, it recorded 8 channels at 47.25 kHz, but it used 14-bits "with emphasis , making it equivalent to 15.5 bits." In 1979,
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2772-437: The first digital pop album, Bop till You Drop , was recorded. It was recorded in 50 kHz, 16-bit linear PCM using a 3M digital tape recorder. The compact disc (CD) brought PCM to consumer audio applications with its introduction in 1982. The CD uses a 44,100 Hz sampling frequency and 16-bit resolution and stores up to 80 minutes of stereo audio per disc. The rapid development and wide adoption of PCM digital telephony
2838-403: The ingredients is the head and the other is attributive. A porta-light is a portable light, not a 'light-emitting' or light portability; light is the head. A snobject is a snobbery-satisfying object and not an objective or other kind of snob; object is the head. As is also true for (conventional, non-blend) attributive compounds (among which bathroom , for example, is a kind of room, not
2904-449: The late 1940s and early 1950s used a cathode-ray coding tube with a plate electrode having encoding perforations. As in an oscilloscope , the beam was swept horizontally at the sample rate while the vertical deflection was controlled by the input analog signal, causing the beam to pass through higher or lower portions of the perforated plate. The plate collected or passed the beam, producing current variations in binary code, one bit at
2970-490: The mid-20th century, a codec was a device that coded analog signals into digital form using pulse-code modulation (PCM). Later, the name was also applied to software for converting between digital signal formats, including companding functions. An audio codec converts analog audio signals into digital signals for transmission or encodes them for storage. A receiving device converts the digital signals back to analog form using an audio decoder for playback. An example of this
3036-495: The morphemes or phonemes stay in the same position within the syllable. Some languages, like Japanese , encourage the shortening and merging of borrowed foreign words (as in gairaigo ), because they are long or difficult to pronounce in the target language. For example, karaoke , a combination of the Japanese word kara (meaning empty ) and the clipped form oke of the English loanword "orchestra" (J. ōkesutora , オーケストラ ),
3102-408: The multimedia data streams to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be encapsulated together in a container format . Lower bitrate codecs allow more users, but they also have more distortion. Beyond the initial increase in distortion, lower bit rate codecs also achieve their lower bit rates by using more complex algorithms that make certain assumptions, such as those about the media and
3168-618: The number of possible digital values that can be used to represent each sample. Early electrical communications started to sample signals in order to multiplex samples from multiple telegraphy sources and to convey them over a single telegraph cable. The American inventor Moses G. Farmer conceived telegraph time-division multiplexing (TDM) as early as 1853. Electrical engineer W. M. Miner, in 1903, used an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division multiplexing multiple telegraph signals; he also applied this technology to telephony . He obtained intelligible speech from channels sampled at
3234-495: The original "portmanteaus" for which this meaning of the word was created. In a partial blend, one entire word is concatenated with a splinter from another. Some linguists do not recognize these as blends. An entire word may be followed by a splinter: A splinter may be followed by an entire word: An entire word may replace part of another: These have also been called sandwich words, and classed among intercalative blends. (When two words are combined in their entirety,
3300-421: The original stream. If preserving the original quality of the stream is more important than eliminating the correspondingly larger data sizes, lossless codecs are preferred. This is especially true if the data is to undergo further processing (for example, editing ) in which case the repeated application of processing (encoding and decoding) on lossy codecs will degrade the quality of the resulting data such that it
3366-491: The other hand, are formed by the gradual drifting together of words over time due to them commonly appearing together in sequence, such as do not naturally becoming don't (phonologically, / d uː n ɒ t / becoming / d oʊ n t / ). A blend also differs from a compound , which fully preserves the stems of the original words. The British lecturer Valerie Adams's 1973 Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation explains that "In words such as motel ..., hotel
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#17327902025833432-521: The output but are considered unlikely enough to allow reliable synchronization. In other cases, the long term DC value of the modulated signal is important, as building up a DC bias will tend to move communications circuits out of their operating range. In this case, special measures are taken to keep a count of the cumulative DC bias and to modify the codes if necessary to make the DC bias always tend back to zero. Many of these codes are bipolar codes , where
3498-538: The packet loss rate. Other codecs may not make those same assumptions. When a user with a low bitrate codec talks to a user with another codec, additional distortion is introduced by each transcoding . Audio Video Interleave (AVI) is sometimes erroneously described as a codec, but AVI is actually a container format, while a codec is a software or hardware tool that encodes or decodes audio or video into or from some audio or video format. Audio and video encoded with many codecs might be put into an AVI container, although AVI
3564-540: The pulses can be positive, negative or absent. In the typical alternate mark inversion code, non-zero pulses alternate between being positive and negative. These rules may be violated to generate special symbols used for framing or other special purposes. The word pulse in the term pulse-code modulation refers to the pulses to be found in the transmission line. This perhaps is a natural consequence of this technique having evolved alongside two analog methods, pulse-width modulation and pulse-position modulation , in which
3630-453: The result is considered a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe. ) Morphologically, blends fall into two kinds: overlapping and non-overlapping . Overlapping blends are those for which the ingredients' consonants, vowels or even syllables overlap to some extent. The overlap can be of different kinds. These are also called haplologic blends. There may be an overlap that
3696-514: The same title was filed by John R. Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948: U.S. patent 2,437,707 . The three of them published "The Philosophy of PCM" in 1948. The T-carrier system, introduced in 1961, uses two twisted-pair transmission lines to carry 24 PCM telephone calls sampled at 8 kHz and 8-bit resolution. This development improved capacity and call quality compared to the previous frequency-division multiplexing schemes. In 1973, adaptive differential pulse-code modulation (ADPCM)
3762-484: The then-common type of luggage , which opens into two equal parts: You see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word. In his introduction to his 1876 poem The Hunting of the Snark , Carroll again uses portmanteau when discussing lexical selection: Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take
3828-462: The two words "fuming" and "furious". Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say "frumious". In then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. According to the OED Online , a portmanteau is a "case or bag for carrying clothing and other belongings when travelling; (originally) one of
3894-406: The use of 'portmanteau' for such combinations, was: Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious." Make up your mind that you will say both words ... you will say "frumious." The errors are based on similarity of meanings, rather than phonological similarities, and
3960-585: The use of PCM for voice communication in 1937 while working for International Telephone and Telegraph in France. He described the theory and its advantages, but no practical application resulted. Reeves filed for a French patent in 1938, and his US patent was granted in 1943. By this time Reeves had started working at the Telecommunications Research Establishment . The first transmission of speech by digital techniques,
4026-692: The voice signal even further. An ADPCM algorithm is used to map a series of 8-bit μ-law or A-law PCM samples into a series of 4-bit ADPCM samples. In this way, the capacity of the line is doubled. The technique is detailed in the G.726 standard. Audio coding formats and audio codecs have been developed to achieve further compression. Some of these techniques have been standardized and patented. Advanced compression techniques, such as modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) and linear predictive coding (LPC), are now widely used in mobile phones , voice over IP (VoIP) and streaming media . PCM can be either return-to-zero (RZ) or non-return-to-zero (NRZ). For
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#17327902025834092-452: The voice signal, telephony applications therefore typically use an 8000 Hz sampling frequency which is more than twice the highest usable voice frequency. Regardless, there are potential sources of impairment implicit in any PCM system: Some forms of PCM combine signal processing with coding. Older versions of these systems applied the processing in the analog domain as part of the analog-to-digital process; newer implementations do so in
4158-542: The whole of the shorter ingredient, as in then the effect depends on orthography alone. (They are also called orthographic blends. ) An orthographic overlap need not also be phonological: For some linguists, an overlap is a condition for a blend. Non-overlapping blends (also called substitution blends) have no overlap, whether phonological or orthographic: Morphosemantically, blends fall into two kinds: attributive and coordinate . Attributive blends (also called syntactic or telescope blends) are those in which one of
4224-564: Was developed, by P. Cummiskey, Nikil Jayant and James L. Flanagan . In 1967, the first PCM recorder was developed by NHK 's research facilities in Japan. The 30 kHz 12-bit device used a compander (similar to DBX Noise Reduction ) to extend the dynamic range, and stored the signals on a video tape recorder . In 1969, NHK expanded the system's capabilities to 2-channel stereo and 32 kHz 13-bit resolution. In January 1971, using NHK's PCM recording system, engineers at Denon recorded
4290-438: Was enabled by metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) switched capacitor (SC) circuit technology, developed in the early 1970s. This led to the development of PCM codec-filter chips in the late 1970s. The silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) PCM codec-filter chip, developed by David A. Hodges and W.C. Black in 1980, has since been the industry standard for digital telephony. By the 1990s, telecommunication networks such as
4356-409: Was fake AV pages and with the rise of codec technology, both have been used in combination to take advantage of online users. This combination allows fake codecs to be automatically downloaded to a device through a website linked in a pop-up ad, virus/codec alerts or articles as well. Portmanteau In linguistics , a blend —also known as a blend word , lexical blend , or portmanteau —is
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