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100-422: The scientific discipline of computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. Image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, multi-dimensional data from a 3D scanner, 3D point clouds from LiDaR sensors, or medical scanning devices. The technological discipline of computer vision seeks to apply its theories and models to

200-418: A wide number of fields . There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics , which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject. The word statistics , when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art." This should not be confused with the word statistic , referring to a quantity (such as mean or median ) calculated from a set of data, whose plural

300-747: A camera to a computer and having it "describe what it saw". What distinguished computer vision from the prevalent field of digital image processing at that time was a desire to extract three-dimensional structure from images with the goal of achieving full scene understanding. Studies in the 1970s formed the early foundations for many of the computer vision algorithms that exist today, including extraction of edges from images, labeling of lines, non-polyhedral and polyhedral modeling , representation of objects as interconnections of smaller structures, optical flow , and motion estimation . The next decade saw studies based on more rigorous mathematical analysis and quantitative aspects of computer vision. These include

400-407: A complete 3D surface model. The advent of 3D imaging not requiring motion or scanning, and related processing algorithms is enabling rapid advances in this field. Grid-based 3D sensing can be used to acquire 3D images from multiple angles. Algorithms are now available to stitch multiple 3D images together into point clouds and 3D models. Image restoration comes into the picture when the original image

500-669: A computer vision system also depends on whether its functionality is pre-specified or if some part of it can be learned or modified during operation. Many functions are unique to the application. There are, however, typical functions that are found in many computer vision systems. Image-understanding systems (IUS) include three levels of abstraction as follows: low level includes image primitives such as edges, texture elements, or regions; intermediate level includes boundaries, surfaces and volumes; and high level includes objects, scenes, or events. Many of these requirements are entirely topics for further research. The representational requirements in

600-478: A core part of most imaging systems. Sophisticated image sensors even require quantum mechanics to provide a complete understanding of the image formation process. Also, various measurement problems in physics can be addressed using computer vision, for example, motion in fluids. Neurobiology has greatly influenced the development of computer vision algorithms. Over the last century, there has been an extensive study of eyes, neurons, and brain structures devoted to

700-444: A degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Applied science is the use of existing scientific knowledge to achieve practical goals, like technology or inventions. Within natural science , disciplines that are basic science develop basic information to explain and perhaps predict phenomena in the natural world. Applied science is the use of scientific processes and knowledge as

800-711: A driver or a pilot in various situations. Fully autonomous vehicles typically use computer vision for navigation, e.g., for knowing where they are or mapping their environment ( SLAM ), for detecting obstacles. It can also be used for detecting certain task-specific events, e.g. , a UAV looking for forest fires. Examples of supporting systems are obstacle warning systems in cars, cameras and LiDAR sensors in vehicles, and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft. Several car manufacturers have demonstrated systems for autonomous driving of cars . There are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced missiles to UAVs for recon missions or missile guidance. Space exploration

900-636: A flower or a person holding a quill in their hand. They also have trouble with images that have been distorted with filters (an increasingly common phenomenon with modern digital cameras). By contrast, those kinds of images rarely trouble humans. Humans, however, tend to have trouble with other issues. For example, they are not good at classifying objects into fine-grained classes, such as the particular breed of dog or species of bird, whereas convolutional neural networks handle this with ease. Several specialized tasks based on recognition exist, such as: Several tasks relate to motion estimation, where an image sequence

1000-460: A generalization of systems science . The term originates from Bertalanffy 's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the sociological autopoiesis of Niklas Luhmann . In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback . Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including

1100-459: A particular stage of processing. Inference and control requirements for IUS are: search and hypothesis activation, matching and hypothesis testing, generation and use of expectations, change and focus of attention, certainty and strength of belief, inference and goal satisfaction. There are many kinds of computer vision systems; however, all of them contain these basic elements: a power source, at least one image acquisition device (camera, ccd, etc.),

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1200-443: A particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common. Examples of applications of computer vision include systems for: One of the most prominent application fields is medical computer vision , or medical image processing, characterized by the extraction of information from image data to diagnose a patient . An example of this is the detection of tumours , arteriosclerosis or other malign changes, and

1300-531: A processor, and control and communication cables or some kind of wireless interconnection mechanism. In addition, a practical vision system contains software, as well as a display in order to monitor the system. Vision systems for inner spaces, as most industrial ones, contain an illumination system and may be placed in a controlled environment. Furthermore, a completed system includes many accessories, such as camera supports, cables, and connectors. Most computer vision systems use visible-light cameras passively viewing

1400-571: A production line, to research into artificial intelligence and computers or robots that can comprehend the world around them. The computer vision and machine vision fields have significant overlap. Computer vision covers the core technology of automated image analysis which is used in many fields. Machine vision usually refers to a process of combining automated image analysis with other methods and technologies to provide automated inspection and robot guidance in industrial applications. In many computer-vision applications, computers are pre-programmed to solve

1500-580: A rich set of information about a combat scene that can be used to support strategic decisions. In this case, automatic processing of the data is used to reduce complexity and to fuse information from multiple sensors to increase reliability. One of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles, which include submersibles , land-based vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars, or trucks), aerial vehicles, and unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV ). The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous (unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer-vision-based systems support

1600-485: A scene at frame rates of at most 60 frames per second (usually far slower). A few computer vision systems use image-acquisition hardware with active illumination or something other than visible light or both, such as structured-light 3D scanners , thermographic cameras , hyperspectral imagers , radar imaging , lidar scanners, magnetic resonance images , side-scan sonar , synthetic aperture sonar , etc. Such hardware captures "images" that are then processed often using

1700-532: A significant part of the field is devoted to the implementation aspect of computer vision; how existing methods can be realized in various combinations of software and hardware, or how these methods can be modified in order to gain processing speed without losing too much performance. Computer vision is also used in fashion eCommerce, inventory management, patent search, furniture, and the beauty industry. The fields most closely related to computer vision are image processing , image analysis and machine vision . There

1800-430: A small sheet of rubber containing an array of rubber pins. A user can then wear the finger mold and trace a surface. A computer can then read the data from the strain gauges and measure if one or more of the pins are being pushed upward. If a pin is being pushed upward then the computer can recognize this as an imperfection in the surface. This sort of technology is useful in order to receive accurate data on imperfections on

1900-413: A variety of dental pathologies; measurements of organ dimensions, blood flow, etc. are another example. It also supports medical research by providing new information: e.g. , about the structure of the brain or the quality of medical treatments. Applications of computer vision in the medical area also include enhancement of images interpreted by humans—ultrasonic images or X-ray images, for example—to reduce

2000-638: A vector b i {\displaystyle \mathbf {b} _{i}} . Bundle adjustment minimizes the total reprojection error with respect to all 3D point and camera parameters, specifically where Q ( a j , b i ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} (\mathbf {a} _{j},\,\mathbf {b} _{i})} is the predicted projection of point i {\displaystyle i} on image j {\displaystyle j} and d ( x , y ) {\displaystyle d(\mathbf {x} ,\,\mathbf {y} )} denotes

2100-434: A very large surface. Another variation of this finger mold sensor are sensors that contain a camera suspended in silicon. The silicon forms a dome around the outside of the camera and embedded in the silicon are point markers that are equally spaced. These cameras can then be placed on devices such as robotic hands in order to allow the computer to receive highly accurate tactile data. Other application areas include: Each of

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2200-411: Is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading"). Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, to elucidate principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and

2300-433: Is a branch of biology concerning interactions among organisms and their biophysical environment , which includes both biotic and abiotic components. Topics of interest include the biodiversity , distribution, biomass , and populations of organisms, as well as cooperation and competition within and between species . Ecosystems are dynamically interacting systems of organisms , the communities they make up, and

2400-526: Is a significant overlap in the range of techniques and applications that these cover. This implies that the basic techniques that are used and developed in these fields are similar, something which can be interpreted as there is only one field with different names. On the other hand, it appears to be necessary for research groups, scientific journals, conferences, and companies to present or market themselves as belonging specifically to one of these fields and, hence, various characterizations which distinguish each of

2500-604: Is a sub-discipline of both biology and chemistry, and from a reductionist point of view it is fundamental in biology. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology , cell biology , genetics , and physiology . Microbiology is the study of microorganisms , those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology , bacteriology , protistology , mycology , immunology and parasitology . Botany , also called plant science(s) , plant biology or phytology ,

2600-844: Is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on more mathematical topics of computing, and includes the theory of computation . It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM 's (Association for Computing Theory) Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description: TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms , data structures , computational complexity , parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation , quantum computation , automata theory , information theory , cryptography , program semantics and verification , machine learning , computational biology , computational economics , computational geometry , and computational number theory and algebra . Work in this field

2700-488: Is already being made with autonomous vehicles using computer vision, e.g. , NASA 's Curiosity and CNSA 's Yutu-2 rover. Materials such as rubber and silicon are being used to create sensors that allow for applications such as detecting microundulations and calibrating robotic hands. Rubber can be used in order to create a mold that can be placed over a finger, inside of this mold would be multiple strain gauges. The finger mold and sensors could then be placed on top of

2800-437: Is also a trend towards a combination of the two disciplines, e.g. , as explored in augmented reality . The following characterizations appear relevant but should not be taken as universally accepted: Photogrammetry also overlaps with computer vision, e.g., stereophotogrammetry vs. computer stereo vision . Applications range from tasks such as industrial machine vision systems which, say, inspect bottles speeding by on

2900-410: Is alternatively known as biology , and physical science is subdivided into branches: physics , chemistry , astronomy and Earth science . These branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches (also known as fields). Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However,

3000-409: Is an academic field which is primarily concerned with analysis , collection, classification , manipulation, storage, retrieval , movement, dissemination , and protection of information . Practitioners within and outside the field study the application and the usage of knowledge in organizations in addition to the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information systems with

3100-424: Is another field that is closely related to computer vision. Most computer vision systems rely on image sensors , which detect electromagnetic radiation , which is typically in the form of either visible , infrared or ultraviolet light . The sensors are designed using quantum physics . The process by which light interacts with surfaces is explained using physics. Physics explains the behavior of optics which are

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3200-439: Is being measured and inspected for inaccuracies or defects to prevent a computer chip from coming to market in an unusable manner. Another example is a measurement of the position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm. Machine vision is also heavily used in the agricultural processes to remove undesirable foodstuff from bulk material, a process called optical sorting . Military applications are probably one of

3300-444: Is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, or multi-dimensional data from a medical scanner . As a technological discipline, computer vision seeks to apply its theories and models for the construction of computer vision systems. Machine vision refers to a systems engineering discipline, especially in

3400-502: Is degraded or damaged due to some external factors like lens wrong positioning, transmission interference, low lighting or motion blurs, etc., which is referred to as noise. When the images are degraded or damaged, the information to be extracted from them also gets damaged. Therefore, we need to recover or restore the image as it was intended to be. The aim of image restoration is the removal of noise (sensor noise, motion blur, etc.) from images. The simplest possible approach for noise removal

3500-458: Is disagreement on whether the formal sciences actually constitute as a science. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality, and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences . Logic (from Greek : λογική , logikḗ , 'possessed of reason , intellectual , dialectical , argumentative ')

3600-573: Is given by the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge ; this is a benchmark in object classification and detection, with millions of images and 1000 object classes used in the competition. Performance of convolutional neural networks on the ImageNet tests is now close to that of humans. The best algorithms still struggle with objects that are small or thin, such as a small ant on the stem of

3700-512: Is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor . Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena , based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation . Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two main branches: life science and physical science . Life science

3800-404: Is processed to produce an estimate of the velocity either at each points in the image or in the 3D scene or even of the camera that produces the images. Examples of such tasks are: Given one or (typically) more images of a scene, or a video, scene reconstruction aims at computing a 3D model of the scene. In the simplest case, the model can be a set of 3D points. More sophisticated methods produce

3900-482: Is required to navigate through them. Information about the environment could be provided by a computer vision system, acting as a vision sensor and providing high-level information about the environment and the robot Besides the above-mentioned views on computer vision, many of the related research topics can also be studied from a purely mathematical point of view. For example, many methods in computer vision are based on statistics , optimization or geometry . Finally,

4000-399: Is the natural science that studies life such as microorganisms , plants , and animals including human beings , – including their physical structure , chemical processes , molecular interactions , physiological mechanisms , development , and evolution . Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes

4100-711: Is the science of plant life and a branch of biology . Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress . Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants ), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes . Zoology ( / z oʊ ˈ ɒ l ə dʒ i / )

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4200-467: Is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents , waves , and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the seafloor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of

4300-799: Is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure , embryology , evolution , classification , habits , and distribution of all animals , both living and extinct , and how they interact with their ecosystems. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion , i.e. " animal " and λόγος, logos , i.e. "knowledge, study". Some branches of zoology include: anthrozoology , arachnology , archaeozoology , cetology , embryology , entomology , helminthology , herpetology , histology , ichthyology , malacology , mammalogy , morphology , nematology , ornithology , palaeozoology , pathology , primatology , protozoology , taxonomy , and zoogeography . Ecology (from Greek : οἶκος , "house", or "environment"; -λογία , "study of")

4400-473: Is the general analysis of nature , conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines , perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy . Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry , certain branches of mathematics , and biology , but during the Scientific Revolution in

4500-436: Is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data . It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments . A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of

4600-436: Is the systematic study of valid rules of inference , i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of one proposition (the conclusion ) on the basis of a set of other propositions ( premises ). More broadly, logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments . It has traditionally included the classification of arguments; the systematic exposition of the logical forms ; the validity and soundness of deductive reasoning ;

4700-509: Is usually obtained compared to the simpler approaches. An example in this field is inpainting . The organization of a computer vision system is highly application-dependent. Some systems are stand-alone applications that solve a specific measurement or detection problem, while others constitute a sub-system of a larger design which, for example, also contains sub-systems for control of mechanical actuators, planning, information databases, man-machine interfaces, etc. The specific implementation of

4800-401: Is various types of filters, such as low-pass filters or median filters. More sophisticated methods assume a model of how the local image structures look to distinguish them from noise. By first analyzing the image data in terms of the local image structures, such as lines or edges, and then controlling the filtering based on local information from the analysis step, a better level of noise removal

4900-479: The cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity , and evolution as the engine that propels the creation and extinction of species . Living organisms are open systems that survive by transforming energy and decreasing their local entropy to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as homeostasis . Biochemistry , or biological chemistry , is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms . It

5000-403: The corresponding image projections of all points. Bundle adjustment is almost always used as the last step of feature-based 3D reconstruction algorithms. It amounts to an optimization problem on the 3D structure and viewing parameters (i.e., camera pose and possibly intrinsic calibration and radial distortion), to obtain a reconstruction which is optimal under certain assumptions regarding

5100-491: The natural sciences as tools for understanding society, and so define science in its stricter modern sense . Interpretivist social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing empirically falsifiable theories. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic , using multiple methodologies (for instance, by combining both quantitative and qualitative research ). The term " social research " has also acquired

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5200-551: The solid Earth , the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon . Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology and the atmospheric sciences , and so is treated as one major aspect of integrated Earth system science and planetary science . Oceanography , or marine science ,

5300-513: The solid earth . Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics , chemistry , biology , geography , chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state. Geology (from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē ("earth") and -λoγία, -logia , ("study of", "discourse") ) is an Earth science concerned with

5400-485: The strength of inductive reasoning ; the study of formal proofs and inference (including paradoxes and fallacies ); and the study of syntax and semantics . Historically, logic has been studied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics (since the mid-19th century). More recently, logic has been studied in cognitive science , which draws on computer science , linguistics , philosophy and psychology , among other disciplines. Information science

5500-507: The 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Certain research areas are interdisciplinary , such as biophysics and quantum chemistry , which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined . In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon . New ideas in physics often explain

5600-507: The Euclidean distance between the image points represented by vectors x {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } and y {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} } . Because the minimum is computed over many points and many images, bundle adjustment is by definition tolerant to missing image projections, and if the distance metric is chosen reasonably (e.g., Euclidean distance), bundle adjustment will also minimize

5700-487: The ability to converge quickly from a wide range of initial guesses. By iteratively linearizing the function to be minimized in the neighborhood of the current estimate, the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm involves the solution of linear systems termed the normal equations . When solving the minimization problems arising in the framework of bundle adjustment, the normal equations have a sparse block structure owing to

5800-485: The advent of optimization methods for camera calibration, it was realized that a lot of the ideas were already explored in bundle adjustment theory from the field of photogrammetry . This led to methods for sparse 3-D reconstructions of scenes from multiple images . Progress was made on the dense stereo correspondence problem and further multi-view stereo techniques. At the same time, variations of graph cut were used to solve image segmentation . This decade also marked

5900-459: The aid of geometry, physics, statistics, and learning theory. The classical problem in computer vision, image processing, and machine vision is that of determining whether or not the image data contains some specific object, feature, or activity. Different varieties of recognition problem are described in the literature. Currently, the best algorithms for such tasks are based on convolutional neural networks . An illustration of their capabilities

6000-406: The aim of creating, replacing, improving, or understanding the information systems. Mathematics , in the broadest sense, is just a synonym of formal science; but traditionally mathematics means more specifically the coalition of four areas: arithmetic , algebra , geometry , and analysis , which are, to some degree, the study of quantity, structure, space, and change respectively. Statistics

6100-481: The algorithms implemented in software and hardware behind artificial vision systems. An interdisciplinary exchange between biological and computer vision has proven fruitful for both fields. Yet another field related to computer vision is signal processing . Many methods for processing one-variable signals, typically temporal signals, can be extended in a natural way to the processing of two-variable signals or multi-variable signals in computer vision. However, because of

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6200-429: The application areas described above employ a range of computer vision tasks; more or less well-defined measurement problems or processing problems, which can be solved using a variety of methods. Some examples of typical computer vision tasks are presented below. Computer vision tasks include methods for acquiring , processing , analyzing and understanding digital images, and extraction of high-dimensional data from

6300-420: The binary variables that equal 1 if point i {\displaystyle i} is visible in image j {\displaystyle j} and 0 otherwise. Assume also that each camera j {\displaystyle j} is parameterized by a vector a j {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} _{j}} and each 3D point i {\displaystyle i} by

6400-402: The branches of science are summarized by the table Metascience refers to or includes a field of science that is about science itself. OpenAlex and Scholia can be used to visualize and explore scientific fields and research topics. Bundle adjustment In photogrammetry and computer stereo vision , bundle adjustment is simultaneous refining of the 3D coordinates describing

6500-466: The branches of science that are concerned with formal systems , such as logic , mathematics , theoretical computer science , information theory , systems theory , decision theory , statistics . Unlike other branches, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world ( empirical knowledge ), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules . Hence there

6600-413: The composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter , as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions . It is a physical science which studies various substances , atoms , molecules , and matter (especially carbon based). Example sub-disciplines of chemistry include: biochemistry , the study of substances found in biological organisms ; physical chemistry ,

6700-505: The concept of scale-space , the inference of shape from various cues such as shading , texture and focus, and contour models known as snakes . Researchers also realized that many of these mathematical concepts could be treated within the same optimization framework as regularization and Markov random fields . By the 1990s, some of the previous research topics became more active than others. Research in projective 3-D reconstructions led to better understanding of camera calibration . With

6800-506: The construction of computer vision systems. Subdisciplines of computer vision include scene reconstruction , object detection , event detection , activity recognition , video tracking , object recognition , 3D pose estimation , learning, indexing, motion estimation , visual servoing , 3D scene modeling, and image restoration . Computer vision is an interdisciplinary field that deals with how computers can be made to gain high-level understanding from digital images or videos . From

6900-465: The context of factory automation. In more recent times, the terms computer vision and machine vision have converged to a greater degree. In the late 1960s, computer vision began at universities that were pioneering artificial intelligence . It was meant to mimic the human visual system as a stepping stone to endowing robots with intelligent behavior. In 1966, it was believed that this could be achieved through an undergraduate summer project, by attaching

7000-421: The decisions they do. Decision theory is closely related to the field of game theory and is an interdisciplinary topic, studied by economists, statisticians, psychologists, biologists, political and other social scientists, philosophers, and computer. Empirical applications of this rich theory are usually done with the help of statistical and econometric methods. Theoretical computer science ( TCS )

7100-447: The designing of IUS for these levels are: representation of prototypical concepts, concept organization, spatial knowledge, temporal knowledge, scaling, and description by comparison and differentiation. While inference refers to the process of deriving new, not explicitly represented facts from currently known facts, control refers to the process that selects which of the many inference, search, and matching techniques should be applied at

7200-601: The development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved. Space science is the study of everything in outer space. This has sometimes been called astronomy , but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields, such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine ), space archaeology and science performed in outer space (see space research ). Life science , also known as biology ,

7300-475: The fields from the others have been presented. In image processing, the input is an image and the output is an image as well, whereas in computer vision, an image or a video is taken as an input and the output could be an enhanced image, an understanding of the content of an image or even behavior of a computer system based on such understanding. Computer graphics produces image data from 3D models, and computer vision often produces 3D models from image data. There

7400-434: The first time statistical learning techniques were used in practice to recognize faces in images (see Eigenface ). Toward the end of the 1990s, a significant change came about with the increased interaction between the fields of computer graphics and computer vision. This included image-based rendering , image morphing , view interpolation, panoramic image stitching and early light-field rendering . Recent work has seen

7500-406: The fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy. Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed) is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics , but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by

7600-443: The geosciences or the Earth sciences ) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth . It is arguably a special case in planetary science , the Earth being the only known life -bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere , hydrosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere , as well as

7700-404: The image locations of observed and predicted image points, which is expressed as the sum of squares of a large number of nonlinear, real-valued functions. Thus, the minimization is achieved using nonlinear least-squares algorithms. Of these, Levenberg–Marquardt has proven to be one of the most successful due to its ease of implementation and its use of an effective damping strategy that lends it

7800-483: The influence of noise. A second application area in computer vision is in industry, sometimes called machine vision , where information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a production process. One example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects. One of the most prevalent fields for such inspection is the Wafer industry in which every single Wafer

7900-449: The lack of interaction among parameters for different 3D points and cameras. This can be exploited to gain tremendous computational benefits by employing a sparse variant of the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm which explicitly takes advantage of the normal equations zeros pattern, avoiding storing and operating on zero-elements. Bundle adjustment amounts to jointly refining a set of initial camera and structure parameter estimates for finding

8000-453: The largest areas of computer vision. The obvious examples are the detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and missile guidance . More advanced systems for missile guidance send the missile to an area rather than a specific target, and target selection is made when the missile reaches the area based on locally acquired image data. Modern military concepts, such as "battlefield awareness", imply that various sensors, including image sensors, provide

8100-470: The learning-based methods developed within computer vision ( e.g. neural net and deep learning based image and feature analysis and classification) have their background in neurobiology. The Neocognitron , a neural network developed in the 1970s by Kunihiko Fukushima , is an early example of computer vision taking direct inspiration from neurobiology, specifically the primary visual cortex . Some strands of computer vision research are closely related to

8200-433: The means to achieve a particularly practical or useful result. This includes a broad range of applied science-related fields, including agricultural science , engineering and medicine . Applied science can also apply formal science , such as statistics and probability theory , as in epidemiology . Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods. The relationships between

8300-501: The noise pertaining to the observed image features: If the image error is zero-mean Gaussian , then bundle adjustment is the Maximum Likelihood Estimator . Bundle adjustment was originally conceived in the field of photogrammetry during the 1950s and has increasingly been used by computer vision researchers during recent years. Bundle adjustment boils down to minimizing the reprojection error between

8400-448: The non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as primary production , pedogenesis , nutrient cycling , and niche construction , regulate the flux of energy and matter through an environment. Organisms with specific life history traits sustain these processes. Social science is the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term

8500-412: The perspective of engineering , it seeks to automate tasks that the human visual system can do. "Computer vision is concerned with the automatic extraction, analysis, and understanding of useful information from a single image or a sequence of images. It involves the development of a theoretical and algorithmic basis to achieve automatic visual understanding." As a scientific discipline , computer vision

8600-483: The physiological systems of the human body, in local and global ecosystems, and climate. Decision theory (or the theory of choice not to be confused with choice theory ) is the study of an agent's choices. Decision theory can be broken into two branches: normative decision theory, which analyzes the outcomes of decisions or determines the optimal decisions given constraints and assumptions, and descriptive decision theory, which analyzes how agents actually make

8700-783: The processing needed for certain algorithms. When combined with a high-speed projector, fast image acquisition allows 3D measurement and feature tracking to be realized. Egocentric vision systems are composed of a wearable camera that automatically take pictures from a first-person perspective. As of 2016, vision processing units are emerging as a new class of processors to complement CPUs and graphics processing units (GPUs) in this role. Scientific discipline The branches of science , also referred to as sciences , scientific fields or scientific disciplines , are commonly divided into three major groups: Scientific knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under

8800-413: The processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals. This has led to a coarse yet convoluted description of how natural vision systems operate in order to solve certain vision-related tasks. These results have led to a sub-field within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behavior of biological systems at different levels of complexity. Also, some of

8900-440: The real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g. , in the forms of decisions. Understanding in this context means the transformation of visual images (the input of the retina) into descriptions of the world that can interface with other thought processes and elicit appropriate action. This image understanding can be seen as the disentangling of symbolic information from image data using models constructed with

9000-444: The resurgence of feature -based methods used in conjunction with machine learning techniques and complex optimization frameworks. The advancement of Deep Learning techniques has brought further life to the field of computer vision. The accuracy of deep learning algorithms on several benchmark computer vision data sets for tasks ranging from classification, segmentation and optical flow has surpassed prior methods. Solid-state physics

9100-508: The same computer vision algorithms used to process visible-light images. While traditional broadcast and consumer video systems operate at a rate of 30 frames per second, advances in digital signal processing and consumer graphics hardware has made high-speed image acquisition, processing, and display possible for real-time systems on the order of hundreds to thousands of frames per second. For applications in robotics, fast, real-time video systems are critically important and often can simplify

9200-488: The same conditions. This verifiability may well vary even within a scientific discipline. Natural, social, and formal science make up the fundamental sciences , which form the basis of interdisciplinarity - and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine . Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises . The formal sciences are

9300-444: The scene geometry, the parameters of the relative motion, and the optical characteristics of the camera(s) employed to acquire the images, given a set of images depicting a number of 3D points from different viewpoints . Its name refers to the geometrical bundles of light rays originating from each 3D feature and converging on each camera's optical center, which are adjusted optimally according to an optimality criterion involving

9400-592: The set of parameters that most accurately predict the locations of the observed points in the set of available images. More formally, assume that n {\displaystyle n} 3D points are seen in m {\displaystyle m} views and let x i j {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} _{ij}} be the projection of the i {\displaystyle i} th point on image j {\displaystyle j} . Let v i j {\displaystyle \displaystyle v_{ij}} denote

9500-473: The specific nature of images, there are many methods developed within computer vision that have no counterpart in the processing of one-variable signals. Together with the multi-dimensionality of the signal, this defines a subfield in signal processing as a part of computer vision. Robot navigation sometimes deals with autonomous path planning or deliberation for robotic systems to navigate through an environment . A detailed understanding of these environments

9600-411: The study of biological vision —indeed, just as many strands of AI research are closely tied with research into human intelligence and the use of stored knowledge to interpret, integrate, and utilize visual information. The field of biological vision studies and models the physiological processes behind visual perception in humans and other animals. Computer vision, on the other hand, develops and describes

9700-417: The study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics ; and analytical chemistry , the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure . Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system . Earth science (also known as geoscience ,

9800-497: The term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics. Physics (from Ancient Greek : φύσις , romanized :  physis , lit.   'nature') is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime , along with related concepts such as energy and force . More broadly, it

9900-460: The world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology , chemistry , geology , meteorology , and physics as well as geography . Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere . Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After

10000-431: Was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology , the original "science of society", established in the 19th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of academic disciplines , including anthropology , archaeology , economics , education , history , human geography , law , linguistics , political science , and psychology . Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of

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