65-407: Coralline means 'resembling coral ' and may refer to: Coralline algae , or corallines, red algae that produce calcareous deposits Less commonly, organisms that resemble coral, such as certain bryozoans , hydrozoans , or coralline sponges The calcareous material in coral reefs Coralline rock , produced by coralline algae Something having
130-453: A symbiotic relationship with a class of dinoflagellate algae , zooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium , which can form as much as 30% of the tissue of a polyp. Typically, each polyp harbors one species of alga, and coral species show a preference for Symbiodinium . Young corals are not born with zooxanthellae, but acquire the algae from the surrounding environment, including the water column and local sediment. The main benefit of
195-420: A calcified material. The polyps of stony corals have six-fold symmetry. In stony corals, the tentacles are cylindrical and taper to a point, but in soft corals they are pinnate with side branches known as pinnules. In some tropical species, these are reduced to mere stubs and in some, they are fused to give a paddle-like appearance. Coral skeletons are biocomposites (mineral + organics) of calcium carbonate, in
260-491: A calcium carbonate base, with polyps that bear six stiff tentacles, and soft coral (Alcyonacea and ahermatypic coral) which are pliable and formed by a colony of polyps with eight feather-like tentacles. These two classifications arose from differentiation in gene expressions in their branch tips and bases that arose through developmental signaling pathways such as Hox , Hedgehog , Wnt , BMP etc. Scientists typically select Acropora as research models since they are
325-417: A commonly highly abundant bacterium in corals, has exhibited codiversification with its host. This hints at an intricate set of relationships between the members of the coral holobiont that have been developing as evolution of these members occurs. A study published in 2018 revealed evidence of phylosymbiosis between corals and their tissue and skeleton microbiomes. The coral skeleton, which represents
390-548: A deep-sea plant in his Enquiries on Plants , where he also mentions large stony plants that reveal bright flowers when under water in the Gulf of Heroes . Pliny the Elder stated boldly that several sea creatures including sea nettles and sponges "are neither animals nor plants, but are possessed of a third nature ( tertia natura )". Petrus Gyllius copied Pliny, introducing the term zoophyta for this third group in his 1535 book On
455-520: A full moon. A full moon is equivalent to four to six hours of continuous dim light exposure, which can cause light-dependent reactions in protein. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes , proteins whose light-absorbing flavin structures are sensitive to different types of light. This allows corals such as Dipsastraea speciosa to detect and respond to changes in sunlight and moonlight. Moonlight itself may actually suppress coral spawning. The most immediate cue to cause spawning appears to be
520-558: A hard skeleton. A coral "group" is a colony of very many genetically identical polyps. Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in height. A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening. Each polyp excretes an exoskeleton near the base. Over many generations, the colony thus creates a skeleton characteristic of the species which can measure up to several meters in size. Individual colonies grow by asexual reproduction of polyps. Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of
585-441: A multi-domain marine animal symbiosis. The gammaproteobacterium Endozoicomonas is emerging as a central member of the coral's microbiome, with flexibility in its lifestyle. Given the recent mass bleaching occurring on reefs, corals will likely continue to be a useful and popular system for symbiosis and dysbiosis research. Astrangia poculata , the northern star coral, is a temperate stony coral , widely documented along
650-523: A red coral colour See also [ edit ] Coraline (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Coralline . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coralline&oldid=1153298299 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
715-400: A single polyp and eventually develops into a juvenile and then adult by asexual budding and growth. Within a coral head, the genetically identical polyps reproduce asexually , either by budding (gemmation) or by dividing, whether longitudinally or transversely. Budding involves splitting a smaller polyp from an adult. As the new polyp grows, it forms its body parts . The distance between
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#1732794243534780-415: A skeleton composed of calcium carbonate to strengthen and protect the organism. This is deposited by the polyps and by the coenosarc , the living tissue that connects them. The polyps sit in cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as corallites . Colonies of stony coral are markedly variable in appearance; a single species may adopt an encrusting, plate-like, bushy, columnar or massive solid structure,
845-453: A subset of coral-associated bacteria. Many corals in the order Scleractinia are hermatypic , meaning that they are involved in building reefs. Most such corals obtain some of their energy from zooxanthellae in the genus Symbiodinium . These are symbiotic photosynthetic dinoflagellates which require sunlight; reef-forming corals are therefore found mainly in shallow water. They secrete calcium carbonate to form hard skeletons that become
910-531: Is paraphyletic because the sea anemones are also in the sub-class Hexacorallia. The delineation of coral species is challenging as hypotheses based on morphological traits contradict hypotheses formed via molecular tree-based processes. As of 2020, there are 2175 identified separate coral species, 237 of which are currently endangered, making distinguishing corals to be the utmost of importance in efforts to curb extinction. Adaptation and delineation continues to occur in species of coral in order to combat
975-409: Is coordinated by chemical communication. Corals predominantly reproduce sexually . About 25% of hermatypic corals (reef-building stony corals) form single-sex ( gonochoristic ) colonies, while the rest are hermaphroditic . It is estimated more than 67% of coral are simultaneous hermaphrodites . About 75% of all hermatypic corals "broadcast spawn" by releasing gametes — eggs and sperm —into
1040-422: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Coral Corals are colonial marine invertebrates within the subphylum Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria . They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form
1105-415: Is negatively buoyant, sinking onto the waiting egg carriers that harbor unfertilized eggs for weeks. Synchronous spawning events sometimes occur even with these species. After fertilization, the corals release planula that are ready to settle. The time from spawning to larval settlement is usually two to three days but can occur immediately or up to two months. Broadcast-spawned planula larvae develop at
1170-449: Is thought to have been laid down about two million years ago. Over time, corals fragment and die, sand and rubble accumulates between the corals, and the shells of clams and other molluscs decay to form a gradually evolving calcium carbonate structure. Coral reefs are extremely diverse marine ecosystems hosting over 4,000 species of fish, massive numbers of cnidarians, molluscs , crustaceans , and many other animals. At certain times in
1235-597: The Cambrian about 535 million years ago . Fossils are extremely rare until the Ordovician period, 100 million years later, when Heliolitida, rugose , and tabulate corals became widespread. Paleozoic corals often contained numerous endobiotic symbionts. Leptoseris Leptoseris is a genus of corals belonging to the family Agariciidae . The genus has almost cosmopolitan distribution . Leptoseris corals are found all over tropical waters in
1300-530: The Darwin Mounds , northwest of Cape Wrath , Scotland, and others off the coast of Washington state and the Aleutian Islands . The classification of corals has been discussed for millennia, owing to having similarities to both plants and animals. Aristotle 's pupil Theophrastus described the red coral , korallion , in his book on stones, implying it was a mineral, but he described it as
1365-470: The Indo-Pacific ocean and over a range of depths but mainly the mesophotic zones. Leptoseris can be observed at depths ranging from shallow to extreme depths (over 100m). They have a mutualistic relationship with microalgae called Symbiodinium that gives them the flexibility of photo-acclimatization and photoadaptation to the varying depths. Species: This Scleractinia -related article
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#17327942435341430-600: The coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters, such as the Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Australia . These corals are increasingly at risk of bleaching events where polyps expel the zooxanthellae in response to stress such as high water temperature or toxins. Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live globally in much deeper water, such as the cold-water genus Lophelia which can survive as deep as 3,300 metres (10,800 feet; 1,800 fathoms). Some have been found as far north as
1495-420: The (French) name 'coral'." The Persian polymath Al-Biruni (d.1048) classified sponges and corals as animals, arguing that they respond to touch. Nevertheless, people believed corals to be plants until the eighteenth century when William Herschel used a microscope to establish that coral had the characteristic thin cell membranes of an animal . Presently, corals are classified as species of animals within
1560-455: The Acropora genus, colony differentiation through up-regulation and down-regulation of DEs. Systematic studies of soft coral species have faced challenges due to a lack of taxonomic knowledge. Researchers have not found enough variability within the genus to confidently delineate similar species, due to a low rate in mutation of mitochondrial DNA . Environmental factors, such as
1625-672: The French and Latin Names of the Fishes of the Marseilles Region ; it is popularly but wrongly supposed that Aristotle created the term. Gyllius further noted, following Aristotle, how hard it was to define what was a plant and what was an animal. The Babylonian Talmud refers to coral among a list of types of trees, and the 11th-century French commentator Rashi describes it as "a type of tree (מין עץ) that grows underwater that goes by
1690-536: The Illumina platform are of insufficient length (approximately 250 base pairs) for the design of primers and probes. In 2019, Goldsmith et al. demonstrated Sanger sequencing was capable of reproducing the biologically relevant diversity detected by deeper next-generation sequencing , while also producing longer sequences useful to the research community for probe and primer design (see diagram on right). Reef-building corals are well-studied holobionts that include
1755-605: The International Union for Conservation of Nature's endangered species list and at risk of species loss. Ocean acidification (falling pH levels in the oceans) is threatening the continued species growth and differentiation of corals. Mutation rates of Vibrio shilonii , the reef pathogen responsible for coral bleaching , heavily outweigh the typical reproduction rates of coral colonies when pH levels fall. Thus, corals are unable to mutate their HSPs and other climate change preventative genes to combat
1820-405: The abundance and performance of the microalgal symbionts, as well as calcification and physiology of the host. Studies have also suggested that resident bacteria, archaea, and fungi additionally contribute to nutrient and organic matter cycling within the coral, with viruses also possibly playing a role in structuring the composition of these members, thus providing one of the first glimpses at
1885-407: The algae contribute to coral coloration; some colors, however, are due to host coral pigments, such as green fluorescent proteins (GFPs). Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress and if the stress subsides they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies. Zooxanthellae are located within
1950-487: The area has decreased and in some cases ceased. The area was previously considered a refuge for corals because mass bleaching events due to climate change had not been observed there. Coral restoration techniques for coral reef management are being developed to increase fertilization rates, larval development, and settlement of new corals. Brooding species are most often ahermatypic (not reef-building) in areas of high current or wave action. Brooders release only sperm, which
2015-458: The capture of food. Polyps extend their tentacles, particularly at night, often containing coiled stinging cells ( cnidocytes ) which pierce, poison and firmly hold living prey paralyzing or killing them. Polyp prey includes plankton such as copepods and fish larvae. Longitudinal muscular fibers formed from the cells of the ectoderm allow tentacles to contract to convey the food to the mouth. Similarly, circularly disposed muscular fibres formed from
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2080-507: The cell layers of the body wall. The mesoglea can contain skeletal elements derived from cells migrated from the ectoderm. The sac-like body built up in this way is attached to a hard surface, which in hard corals are cup-shaped depressions in the skeleton known as corallites . At the center of the upper end of the sac lies the only opening called the mouth, surrounded by a circle of tentacles which resemble glove fingers. The tentacles are organs which serve both for tactile sense and for
2145-440: The colony during storms or other disruptions. The separated individuals can start new colonies. Corals are one of the more common examples of an animal host whose symbiosis with microalgae can turn to dysbiosis , and is visibly detected as bleaching. Coral microbiomes have been examined in a variety of studies, which demonstrate how oceanic environmental variations, most notably temperature, light, and inorganic nutrients, affect
2210-797: The coral cytoplasm and due to the algae's photosynthetic activity the internal pH of the coral can be raised; this behavior indicates that the zooxanthellae are responsible to some extent for the metabolism of their host corals. Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease has been associated with the breakdown of host-zooxanthellae physiology. Moreover, Vibrio bacterium are known to have virulence traits used for host coral tissue damage and photoinhibition of algal symbionts. Therefore, both coral and their symbiotic microorganisms could have evolved to harbour traits resistant to disease and transmission. Corals can be both gonochoristic (unisexual) and hermaphroditic , each of which can reproduce sexually and asexually. Reproduction also allows coral to settle in new areas. Reproduction
2275-591: The coral itself together with its symbiont zooxanthellae (photosynthetic dinoflagellates), as well as its associated bacteria and viruses. Co-evolutionary patterns exist for coral microbial communities and coral phylogeny. It is known that the coral's microbiome and symbiont influence host health, however, the historic influence of each member on others is not well understood. Scleractinian corals have been diversifying for longer than many other symbiotic systems, and their microbiomes are known to be partially species-specific. It has been suggested that Endozoicomonas ,
2340-598: The corals supplementing their plankton diet with the products of photosynthesis produced by these symbionts . The polyps interconnect by a complex and well-developed system of gastrovascular canals, allowing significant sharing of nutrients and symbionts. The external form of the polyp varies greatly. The column may be long and slender, or may be so short in the axial direction that the body becomes disk-like. The tentacles may number many hundreds or may be very few, in rare cases only one or two. They may be simple and unbranched, or feathery in pattern. The mouth may be level with
2405-578: The dangers posed by the climate crisis. Corals are colonial modular organisms formed by asexually produced and genetically identical modules called polyps. Polyps are connected by living tissue to produce the full organism. The living tissue allows for inter module communication (interaction between each polyp), which appears in colony morphologies produced by corals, and is one of the main identifying characteristics for a species of coral. There are two main classifications for corals: hard coral (scleractinian and stony coral) which form reefs by
2470-434: The dark portion of the night between sunset and moonrise. Over the lunar cycle, moonrise shifts progressively later, occurring after sunset on the day of the full moon. The resulting dark period between day-light and night-light removes the suppressive effect of moonlight and enables coral to spawn. The spawning event can be visually dramatic, clouding the usually clear water with gametes. Once released, gametes fertilize at
2535-483: The eastern coast of the United States. The coral can live with and without zooxanthellae (algal symbionts), making it an ideal model organism to study microbial community interactions associated with symbiotic state. However, the ability to develop primers and probes to more specifically target key microbial groups has been hindered by the lack of full-length 16S rRNA sequences, since sequences produced by
2600-525: The endoderm permit tentacles to be protracted or thrust out once they are contracted. In both stony and soft corals, the polyps can be retracted by contracting muscle fibres, with stony corals relying on their hard skeleton and cnidocytes for defense. Soft corals generally secrete terpenoid toxins to ward off predators. In most corals, the tentacles are retracted by day and spread out at night to catch plankton and other small organisms. Shallow-water species of both stony and soft corals can be zooxanthellate ,
2665-426: The exoskeleton divide transversally into two parts. This means one has the basal disc (bottom) and the other has the oral disc (top); the new polyps must separately generate the missing pieces. Asexual reproduction offers the benefits of high reproductive rate, delaying senescence, and replacement of dead modules, as well as geographical distribution. Whole colonies can reproduce asexually, forming two colonies with
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2730-400: The form of calcite or aragonite. In scleractinian corals, "centers of calcification" and fibers are clearly distinct structures differing with respect to both morphology and chemical compositions of the crystalline units. The organic matrices extracted from diverse species are acidic, and comprise proteins, sulphated sugars and lipids; they are species specific. The soluble organic matrices of
2795-498: The framework of the reef. However, not all reef-building corals in shallow water contain zooxanthellae, and some deep water species, living at depths to which light cannot penetrate, form reefs but do not harbour the symbionts. There are various types of shallow-water coral reef, including fringing reefs, barrier reefs and atolls; most occur in tropical and subtropical seas. They are very slow-growing, adding perhaps one centimetre (0.4 in) in height each year. The Great Barrier Reef
2860-416: The genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues. These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and give the coral color. Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 feet; 33 fathoms), but corals in the genus Leptoseris have been found as deep as 172 metres (564 feet; 94 fathoms). Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of
2925-638: The geological past, corals were very abundant. Like modern corals, their ancestors built reefs, some of which ended as great structures in sedimentary rocks . Fossils of fellow reef-dwellers algae, sponges, and the remains of many echinoids , brachiopods , bivalves , gastropods , and trilobites appear along with coral fossils. This makes some corals useful index fossils . Coral fossils are not restricted to reef remnants, and many solitary fossils are found elsewhere, such as Cyclocyathus , which occurs in England's Gault clay formation. Corals first appeared in
2990-436: The increase in temperature and decrease in pH at a competitive rate to these pathogens responsible for coral bleaching, resulting in species loss. For most of their life corals are sessile animals of colonies of genetically identical polyps . Each polyp varies from millimeters to centimeters in diameter, and colonies can be formed from many millions of individual polyps. Stony coral, also known as hard coral, polyps produce
3055-463: The most diverse genus of hard coral, having over 120 species. Most species within this genus have polyps which are dimorphic: axial polyps grow rapidly and have lighter coloration, while radial polyps are small and are darker in coloration. In the Acropora genus, gamete synthesis and photosynthesis occur at the basal polyps, growth occurs mainly at the radial polyps. Growth at the site of
3120-418: The most diverse of the three coral microbiomes, showed the strongest evidence of phylosymbiosis. Coral microbiome composition and richness were found to reflect coral phylogeny . For example, interactions between bacterial and eukaryotic coral phylogeny influence the abundance of Endozoicomonas , a highly abundant bacterium in the coral holobiont. However, host-microbial cophylogeny appears to influence only
3185-637: The new and adult polyps grows, and with it, the coenosarc (the common body of the colony). Budding can be intratentacular, from its oral discs, producing same-sized polyps within the ring of tentacles, or extratentacular, from its base, producing a smaller polyp. Division forms two polyps that each become as large as the original. Longitudinal division begins when a polyp broadens and then divides its coelenteron (body), effectively splitting along its length. The mouth divides and new tentacles form. The two polyps thus created then generate their missing body parts and exoskeleton. Transversal division occurs when polyps and
3250-416: The polyps of most are connected by sheets of tissue called coenosarc, and in some species these sheets are thick and the polyps deeply embedded in them. Some soft corals encrust other sea objects or form lobes. Others are tree-like or whip-like and have a central axial skeleton embedded at their base in the matrix of the supporting branch. These branches are composed of a fibrous protein called gorgonin or of
3315-412: The radial polyps encompasses two processes: asexual reproduction via mitotic cell proliferation , and skeleton deposition of the calcium carbonate via extra cellular matrix (EMC) proteins acting as differentially expressed (DE) signaling genes between both branch tips and bases. These processes lead to colony differentiation , which is the most accurate distinguisher between coral species. In
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#17327942435343380-440: The rise of temperatures and acid levels in our oceans account for some speciation of corals in the form of species lost . Various coral species have heat shock proteins (HSP) that are also in the category of DE across species. These HSPs help corals combat the increased temperatures they are facing which lead to protein denaturing, growth loss, and eventually coral death. Approximately 33% of coral species are on
3445-406: The same genotype. The possible mechanisms include fission, bailout and fragmentation. Fission occurs in some corals, especially among the family Fungiidae , where the colony splits into two or more colonies during early developmental stages. Bailout occurs when a single polyp abandons the colony and settles on a different substrate to create a new colony. Fragmentation involves individuals broken from
3510-563: The same night even when multiple species are present. Synchronous spawning may form hybrids and is perhaps involved in coral speciation . Environmental cues that influence the release of gametes into the water vary from species to species. The cues involve temperature change, lunar cycle , day length , and possibly chemical signalling. Other factors that affect the rhythmicity of organisms in marine habitats include salinity, mechanical forces, and pressure or magnetic field changes. Mass coral spawning often occurs at night on days following
3575-439: The same species release gametes simultaneously overnight, often around a full moon . Fertilized eggs form planulae, a mobile early form of the coral polyp which, when mature, settles to form a new colony. Although some corals are able to catch plankton and small fish using stinging cells on their tentacles, most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates of
3640-409: The skeleton, with the latter showing the greatest microbial richness. The zooxanthellae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's carbon dioxide , phosphate and nitrogenous waste. Stressed corals will eject their zooxanthellae, a process that is becoming increasingly common due to strain placed on coral by rising ocean temperatures. Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching because
3705-433: The skeletons allow to differentiate zooxanthellae and non-zooxanthellae specimens. Polyps feed on a variety of small organisms, from microscopic zooplankton to small fish. The polyp's tentacles immobilize or kill prey using stinging cells called nematocysts . These cells carry venom which they rapidly release in response to contact with another organism. A dormant nematocyst discharges in response to nearby prey touching
3770-413: The sub-classes Hexacorallia and Octocorallia of the class Anthozoa in the phylum Cnidaria . Hexacorallia includes the stony corals and these groups have polyps that generally have a 6-fold symmetry. Octocorallia includes blue coral and soft corals and species of Octocorallia have polyps with an eightfold symmetry, each polyp having eight tentacles and eight mesenteries . The group of corals
3835-558: The surface of the peristome, or may be projecting and trumpet-shaped. Soft corals have no solid exoskeleton as such. However, their tissues are often reinforced by small supportive elements known as sclerites made of calcium carbonate. The polyps of soft corals have eight-fold symmetry, which is reflected in the Octo in Octocorallia. Soft corals vary considerably in form, and most are colonial. A few soft corals are stolonate , but
3900-454: The trigger ( Cnidocil ). A flap ( operculum ) opens and its stinging apparatus fires the barb into the prey. The venom is injected through the hollow filament to immobilise the prey; the tentacles then manoeuvre the prey into the stomach. Once the prey is digested the stomach reopens allowing the elimination of waste products and the beginning of the next hunting cycle. Many corals, as well as other cnidarian groups such as sea anemones form
3965-466: The various forms often being linked to different types of habitat, with variations in light level and water movement being significant. The body of the polyp may be roughly compared in a structure to a sac , the wall of which is composed of two layers of cells . The outer layer is known technically as the ectoderm , the inner layer as the endoderm . Between ectoderm and endoderm is a supporting layer of gelatinous substance termed mesoglea , secreted by
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#17327942435344030-427: The water where they meet and fertilize to spread offspring. Corals often synchronize their time of spawning. This reproductive synchrony is essential so that male and female gametes can meet. Spawning frequently takes place in the evening or at night, and can occur as infrequently as once a year, and within a window of 10–30 minutes. Synchronous spawning is very typical on the coral reef, and often, all corals spawn on
4095-542: The water's surface and form a microscopic larva called a planula , typically pink and elliptical in shape. A typical coral colony needs to release several thousand larvae per year to overcome the odds against formation of a new colony. Studies suggest that light pollution desynchronizes spawning in some coral species. In areas such as the Red Sea , as many as 10 out of 50 species may be showing spawning asynchrony, compared to 30 years ago. The establishment of new corals in
4160-559: The water's surface before descending to seek a hard surface on the benthos to which they can attach and begin a new colony. The larvae often need a biological cue to induce settlement such as specific crustose coralline algae species or microbial biofilms. High failure rates afflict many stages of this process, and even though thousands of eggs are released by each colony, few new colonies form. During settlement, larvae are inhibited by physical barriers such as sediment, as well as chemical (allelopathic) barriers. The larvae metamorphose into
4225-410: The zooxanthellae is their ability to photosynthesize which supplies corals with the products of photosynthesis, including glucose, glycerol, also amino acids, which the corals can use for energy. Zooxanthellae also benefit corals by aiding in calcification , for the coral skeleton, and waste removal. In addition to the soft tissue, microbiomes are also found in the coral's mucus and (in stony corals)
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