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104-807: The Corpo Aereo Italiano (literally, "Italian Air Corps"), or CAI , was an expeditionary force from the Italian Regia Aeronautica (Italian Royal Air Force) that participated in the Battle of Britain and the Blitz in the final months of 1940 during World War II . The CAI supported the German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) and flew against the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and Fleet Air Arm (FAA). The CAI achieved limited success during its brief existence, but it

208-484: A 1,230 kW (1,672 PS; 1,649 hp) DB 601R racing engine, set a new world air speed record for landplanes with piston engines of 610.95 km/h (379.63 mph), winning the title for Germany for the first time. Converted from a Bf 109D, the V13 had been fitted with a special racing DB 601R engine that could deliver 1,230 kW (1,672 PS; 1,649 hp) for short periods. Heinkel , having had

312-494: A 20 mm MG FF/M autocannon, the "/M" suffix indicating the capability of firing thin-walled 20mm mine shells , installed internally in each wing. In place of internal wing armament, additional firepower was provided through a pair of 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons installed in conformal gun pods under the wings. The conformal gun pods, exclusive of ammunition, weighed 135 kg (298 lb); and 135 to 145 rounds were provided per gun. The total weight, including ammunition,

416-685: A 7.7 mm/.303 in Breda-SAFAT), could easily out-turn Hurricanes and Spitfires, making them difficult to hit. "The CR 42 turned to fight using all the aeroplane's manoeuvrability. The pilot could get on my tail in a single turn, so tightly was he able to pull round." As the RAF intelligence report stated, the Falcos were hard targets. "As I fired he half rolled very tightly and I was completely unable to hold him, so rapid were his manoeuvres. I attacked two or three more and fired short bursts, in each case

520-566: A cut-off system: if one radiator leaked you could fly on the second or close both down and fly at least five minutes more. The pilot was protected by armour-plate from the back, and the fuel tank was also behind armour. Our planes had fuel tanks in the centre of their wings: that's why our pilot got burnt. What else did I like about the Messer? It was highly automatic and thus easy to fly. It also employed an electrical pitch regulator, which our planes didn't have. Our propeller system, with variable pitch

624-447: A disadvantage for a light fighter, decreasing the aircraft's rate of roll and manoeuvrability. As a result, the He 112 V4 which was used for the trials had new wings, spanning 11.5 m (37 ft 8.75 in) with an area of 21.6 m (232.5 ft ). However, the improvements had not been fully tested and the He 112 V4 could not be demonstrated in accordance with the rules laid down by

728-409: A large extent. From the inception of the design, priority was given to easy access to the powerplant, fuselage weapons and other systems while the aircraft was operating from forward airfields . To this end, the entire engine cowling was made up of large, easily removable panels which were secured by large toggle latches. A large panel under the wing centre section could be removed to gain access to

832-499: A novel, complex retractable main undercarriage which proved to be unreliable. Initially, the Bf 109 was regarded with disfavour by E-Stelle test pilots because of its steep ground angle, which resulted in poor forward visibility when taxiing; the sideways-hinged cockpit canopy, which could not be opened in flight (but could be dropped by the emergency arm). They were also concerned about the high wing loading. The Heinkel He 112 , based on

936-456: A piston-engined aircraft was to stand until 1969, when Darryl Greenamyer 's modified Grumman F8F Bearcat , Conquest I , broke it with a 777 km/h (483 mph) record speed. When the Bf ;109 was designed in 1934, by a team led by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser , its primary role was that of a high-speed, short-range interceptor. It used the most advanced aerodynamics of

1040-468: A problem with inexperienced pilots, especially during the later stages of the war when pilots received less training before being sent to operational units. At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941. The installation of a fixed "tall" tailwheel on some of the late G-10s and −14s and the K-series helped alleviate the problem to

1144-537: A scaled-down Blitz , was the favourite of the Luftwaffe leaders. Compared with the Bf 109, it was also cheaper. Positive aspects of the He ;112 included the wide track and robustness of the undercarriage (this opened outwards from mid wing, as opposed to the 109s which opened from the wing root ), considerably better visibility from the cockpit and a lower wing loading that made for easier landings. In addition,

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1248-545: A shot at a range of 150 metres (500 ft). I realised that in a manoeuvered flight, the CR.42 could win or survive against Hurricanes and Spitfires, though we had to be careful of a sweep from behind. In my opinion, the English .303 bullet was not very effective. Italian aircraft received many hits which did no material damage and one pilot even found that his parachute pack had stopped a bullet." The British Official History assembled

1352-449: A top speed of 400 km/h (250 mph) at 6,000 m (20,000 ft), to be maintained for 20 minutes, while having a total flight duration of 90 minutes. The critical altitude of 6,000 metres was to be reached in no more than 17 minutes, and the fighter was to have an operational ceiling of 10,000 m (33,000 ft). Power was to be provided by the new Junkers Jumo 210 engine of about 522 kW (710 PS; 700 hp). It

1456-688: Is a German World War II fighter aircraft that was, along with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 , the backbone of the Luftwaffe 's fighter force. The Bf 109 first saw operational service in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War . It was still in service at the end of World War II in 1945. It was one of the most advanced fighters when it first appeared, with an all-metal monocoque construction, a closed canopy, and retractable landing gear. A liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine powered it. It

1560-529: Is one of the best conserved CR.42s, and it is owned by a UK museum (Hendon). Fighter to fighter combat was no more successful for the CAI. On 23 November, 29 Italian fighters making an offensive sweep were engaged near the South Foreland . The Italian biplanes were "bounced" by Spitfire Mk.IIs and two were shot down by Archibald Winskill with several others damaged, in return for one Spitfire damaged (though

1664-665: The 20th dynasty . The raiding tactics were expanded into the more complex expeditionary warfare operations by Alexander the Great who used naval vessels for both troop transporting and logistics in his campaigns against the Persian Empire . The next exponents of expeditionary warfare in the ancient world of the Mediterranean Basin were the Carthaginians who introduced two entirely new dimensions to

1768-669: The Eastern Front . The highest-scoring, Erich Hartmann , was credited with 352 victories. The aircraft was also flown by Hans-Joachim Marseille , the highest-scoring ace in the North African campaign , who shot down 158 enemy aircraft (in about a third of the time). It was also flown by many aces from other countries fighting with Germany, notably the Finn Ilmari Juutilainen , the highest-scoring non-German ace. He scored 58 of his 94 confirmed victories with

1872-582: The Heinkel He 51 , they were very critical of the Bf 109 at first. However, it soon became one of the frontrunners in the contest, as the Arado and Focke-Wulf entries, which were intended as "backup" programmes to safeguard against failure of the two favourites, proved to be completely outclassed. The Arado Ar 80, with its gull wing (replaced with a straight, tapered wing on the V3) and fixed, spatted undercarriage

1976-697: The King's Shropshire Light Infantry . All but one were buried together in the Hamilton Road Cemetery, Deal . The next few days saw several small raids. On 11 November 1940, the day before the battle fleet of the Regia Marina (the Italian navy) was attacked at Taranto by the Royal Navy's aircraft and as a result lost half of its capital ships, the CAI saw its first major combat against

2080-603: The Me 209 V1 , set a new record of 755.14 km/h (469.22 mph). For propaganda purposes, the Me ;209 V1 aircraft (possibly from its post-July 1938 first flight date) was given the designation Me 109R , with the later prefix , never used for wartime Bf 109 fighters. The Me 209 V1 was powered by the DB 601ARJ, producing 1,156 kW (1,550 hp), but capable of reaching 1,715 kW (2,300 hp). This world record for

2184-874: The Vandals . But as that empire dwindled, its warfare became more defensive. The most prominent development of expeditionary warfare during the Middle Ages came from the environmental pressures in the Scandinavian region during the Middle Ages, and the emergence of the Viking migrations that combined raiding, longer term inland operations, occupation and settlement. These operations were conducted as sea , coastal and riverine operations, and sometimes were strategic in nature, reaching as far as Constantinople . Expeditionary warfare in East Asia began very much in

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2288-745: The infantry . One of the most extensive and complex of expeditionary operations that followed the war was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War that saw forces deployed in the Baltic region , the Arctic region , along the Black Sea coast, and in the Russian Far East . Other expeditionary forces during WWI included: Messerschmitt Bf 109 The Messerschmitt Bf 109

2392-409: The 1,350 PS (993 kW; 1,332 hp) DB 601E (F-3, F-4). Considered by many as the high-water mark of Bf 109 development, the F series abandoned the wing cannon and concentrated all armament in the forward fuselage with a pair of synchronized machine guns above and a single 15 or 20 mm Motorkanone -mount cannon behind the engine, the latter firing between the cylinder banks and through

2496-423: The 109F-series onwards, guns were no longer carried inside the wings. Instead, the Bf 109F had a 20 mm gun firing through the propeller shaft. The change was disliked by leading fighter pilots such as Adolf Galland and Walter Oesau , but others such as Werner Mölders considered the single nose-mounted gun to compensate well for the loss of the two wing guns. Galland had his Bf 109F-2 field-modified with

2600-583: The 1920s saw expeditionary warfare established as a systematic and planned type of operations with larger scope than simple transportations of troops to the theatre, such as the British Expeditionary Force in 1914, Russian Expeditionary Force in 1916, and the American Expeditionary Forces in 1917, and the beginnings of development in true combined operations at strategic, operational and tactical levels with

2704-465: The 449 kW (610 PS; 602 hp) Jumo 210A engine. V3 followed, the first to be mounted with guns, but it did not fly until May 1936 due to a delay in procuring another Jumo 210 engine. After Luftwaffe acceptance trials were completed at their headquarters Erprobungsstelle ( E-Stelle ) military aviation test and development facility at Rechlin , the prototypes were moved to the subordinate E-Stelle Baltic seacoast facility at Travemünde for

2808-653: The 50 Fiat CR.42s were based at Ursel , while the 45 Fiat G.50s in Flugplatz Maldegem , Belgium. As late as 4 November, a Time magazine article only indicated that there was a possibility that an Italian air force unit might be sent to participate in the Battle of Britain. On the night of 24/25 October 1940, the CAI conducted its first raid, when 18 BR.20s took off to attack Harwich and Felixstowe . Not all aircraft found their targets and three were lost in accidents. The Harwich Gun Defence Area (GDA) covering

2912-583: The Acceptance Commission, placing it at a distinct disadvantage. Because of its smaller, lighter airframe , the Bf 109 was 30 km/h (20 mph) faster than the He 112 in level flight, and superior in climbing and diving. The Commission ultimately ruled in favour of the Bf 109 because of the Messerschmitt test pilot's demonstration of the 109's capabilities during a series of spins, dives, flick rolls and tight turns, throughout which

3016-494: The Bf 109 "the skinny one" (худо́й, khudoy ), for its sleek appearance compared, for example, to the more robust Fw 190. The names "Anton", "Berta", "Caesar", "Dora", "Emil", "Friedrich", "Gustav", and "Kurfürst" were derived from the variant's official letter designation (e.g. Bf 109G – "Gustav"), based on the German spelling alphabet of World War II, a practice that was also used for other German aircraft designs. The G-6 variant

3120-546: The Bf 109 into production. At the same time, Heinkel was instructed to radically redesign the He 112. The Messerschmitt 109 made its public debut during the 1936 Berlin Olympics when the V1 prototype was flown. As with the earlier Bf 108, the new design was based on Messerschmitt's "lightweight construction" principle, which aimed to minimise the number of separate parts in the aircraft. Examples of this could be found in

3224-567: The Bf 109. Pilots from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovakia and Italy also flew the fighter. Through constant development, the Bf 109 remained competitive with the latest Allied fighter aircraft until the end of the war. During 1933, the Technisches Amt (C-Amt), the technical department of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) ("Reich Aviation Ministry"), concluded a series of research projects into

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3328-475: The Bf 109 was the K series or Kurfürst , introduced in late 1944, powered by the DB 605D engine with up to 2,000 PS (1,471 kW; 1,973 hp). Though externally akin to the late production Bf 109G series, a large number of internal changes and aerodynamic improvements were incorporated that improved its effectiveness and remedied flaws, keeping it competitive with the latest Allied and Soviet fighters. The Bf 109's outstanding rate of climb

3432-566: The Bf 109F replaced it in the pure fighter role. (Eight Bf 109Es were assembled in Switzerland in 1946 by the Dornier-Werke, using licence-built airframes; a ninth airframe was assembled using spare parts.) The second big redesign during 1939–40 gave birth to the F series . The Friedrich had new wings, cooling system and fuselage aerodynamics, with the 1,175 PS (864 kW; 1,159 hp) DB 601N (F-1, F-2) or

3536-520: The CAI fighters flew 454 offensive and 480 defensive sorties (including 113 bomber escort). Near the beginning of January 1941, all of the bombers and biplanes were redeployed. This left the CAI with only the Fiat G.50s, which remained until mid-April 1941, when they too were redeployed. From January to April 1941 the two remaining squadrons based in Belgium flew a further 662 defensive sorties. Although

3640-461: The E series had a fuselage ordnance rack for fighter-bomber operations or provision for a long-range, standardized 300 litres (79 US gallons) drop-tank and used the DB ;601N engine of higher power output. The Bf 109E first saw service with the " Condor Legion " during the last phase of the Spanish Civil War and was the main variant from the beginning of World War II until mid-1941 when

3744-550: The Flugmeeting airshow in Zürich under the command of Major Seidemann. They won in several categories: First prize in a speed race over a 202 km course, first prize in the class A category in the international Alpenrundflug for military aircraft, and victory in the international Patrouillenflug category. On 11 November 1937, the Bf 109 V13, D-IPKY flown by Messerschmitt's chief pilot Dr. Hermann Wurster, powered by

3848-616: The French Dewoitine D.520 , or the American Bell P-39 Airacobra , and dated back to World War I 's small run of SPAD S.XII moteur-canon , 37 mm cannon-armed fighters in France. When it was discovered in 1937 that the RAF was planning eight-gun batteries for its new Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire fighters, it was decided that the Bf 109 should be more heavily armed. The problem

3952-506: The He 112 rejected in the design competition of 1936, designed and built the He 100 . On 6 June 1938, the He 100 V3, flown by Ernst Udet , captured the record with a speed of 634.7 km/h (394.4 mph). On 30 March 1939, test pilot Hans Dieterle surpassed that record, reaching 746.61 km/h (463.92 mph) with the He 100 V8. Messerschmitt, however, soon regained the lead when, on 26 April 1939, Flugkapitän Fritz Wendel , flying

4056-498: The Italian pilots claimed the destruction of at least five British fighters). Further bombing raids were carried out by the CAI, mainly on the Harwich and Ipswich areas. By the end of December, shortly before its redeployment, the CAI had flown 97 bomber sorties , for the loss of three aircraft. The Italian planes had dropped 44.87 tonnes of bombs in 77 night sorties, most of them over Harwich. Between October 1940 and January 1941

4160-621: The Junkers Jumo 210 powered most of the pre-war variants. The most-produced Bf 109 model was the Bf 109G series (more than a third of all 109s built were the G-6 series, 12,000 units being manufactured from March 1943 until the end of the war). The initial production models of the A, B, C and D series were powered by the relatively low-powered, 670–700 PS (493–515 kW; 661–690 hp) Junkers Jumo 210 series engines. A few prototypes of these early aircraft were converted to use

4264-460: The L-shaped main fuel tank , which was sited partly under the cockpit floor and partly behind the rear cockpit bulkhead. Other, smaller panels gave easy access to the cooling system and electrical equipment. The engine was held in two large, forged, Elektron magnesium alloy Y-shaped legs, one per side straddling the engine block, which were cantilevered from the firewall. Each of the legs

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4368-445: The RAF. Ten bombers were escorted by forty-two CR.42s, G.50s, and some German Messerschmitt Bf 109s assigned to them. The G.50 mission was aborted due to bad weather that caused too much fuel consumption and the Fiat monoplanes had to go, leaving only the CR.42 as escort. However, Hurricanes from several units, belonging to 257 , 46 , and 42 Squadrons intercepted the aircraft and destroyed three bombers and two fighters, while another

4472-448: The V4 had a single-piece, clear-view, sliding cockpit canopy and a more powerful Jumo 210Da engine with a modified exhaust system. However, the He 112 was also structurally complicated, being 18% heavier than the Bf 109, and it soon became clear that the thick wing, which spanned 12.6 m (41 ft 4 in) with an area of 23.2 m (249.7 ft ) on the first prototype (V1), was

4576-742: The Xiongnu from the Qilian Mountains . The expeditionary Han forces were primarily made up of cavalry and were typically arrayed in columns. They also frequently crossed vast distances–Huo Qubing is said to have travelled 2,000 li , roughly 620 miles, during one of his raids. Shortly after the collapse of the Roman empire in Italy, the European Middle Ages began with an expedition of imperial Byzantine general Belisarius against

4680-425: The addition of MW-50 water injection boost and high-performance superchargers , boosting engine output to 1,800–2,000 PS (1,324–1,471 kW; 1,775–1,973 hp). From early 1944, some G-2s, G-3s, G-4s and G-6s were converted to two-seat trainers, known as G-12s. An instructor's cockpit was added behind the original cockpit and both were covered by an elongated, glazed canopy. The final production version of

4784-451: The additional armament increased the fighter's potency as a bomber destroyer, it had an adverse effect on the handling qualities, reducing its performance in fighter-versus-fighter combat and accentuating the tendency of the fighter to swing pendulum-fashion in flight. Some of the projected 109K-series models, such as the K-6, were designed to carry 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons in

4888-594: The airfield located in the southernmost Augsburg neighborhood of Haunstetten , piloted by Hans-Dietrich "Bubi" Knoetzsch. After four months of flight testing, the aircraft was delivered in September to the Luftwaffe's central test centre at the Erprobungsstelle Rechlin to take part in the design competition. In 1935, the first Jumo engines became available, so V2 was completed in October using

4992-410: The cannon to be fitted with the ammunition feed forward of the spar, while the breech block projected rearward through the spar. A 60-round ammunition drum was placed in a space closer to the wing root causing a bulge in the underside. A small hatch was incorporated in the bulge to allow access for changing the drum. The entire weapon could be removed for servicing by removing a leading edge panel. From

5096-516: The case, as all three competing companies—Arado, Heinkel and BFW—received the development contract for the L.A. 1432/33 requirements at the same time in February 1934. A fourth company, Focke-Wulf, received a copy of the development contract only in September 1934. The powerplant was to be the new Junkers Jumo 210, but the proviso was made that it would be interchangeable with the more powerful, but less developed Daimler-Benz DB 600 powerplant. Each

5200-480: The company. All Messerschmitt aircraft that originated after that date, such as the Me 210 , were to carry the "Me" designation. Despite regulations by the RLM, wartime documents from Messerschmitt AG, RLM and Luftwaffe loss and strength reports continued to use both designations, sometimes even on the same page. All extant airframes bear the official "Bf 109" designation on their identification plates, including

5304-484: The enemy aircraft half-rolled very tightly and easily and completely out-turned me. In two cases as they came out of their rolls, they were able to turn in almost on my tail and opened fire on me." Against British monoplanes, the CR.42s were not always outclassed. "I engaged one of the British fighters from a range of between 40 to 50 metres (130–165 ft). Then I saw a Spitfire, which was chasing another CR.42, and I got in

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5408-423: The engines available, a fighter would end up being slower than the bombers it was tasked with catching. A fighter was designed primarily for high-speed flight. A smaller wing area was optimal for achieving high speed, but low-speed flight would suffer, as the smaller wing would require more airflow to generate enough lift to maintain flight. To compensate for this, the Bf 109 included advanced high-lift devices on

5512-595: The example of Carthage, the Romans used expeditionary operations extensively to expand their Empire and influence in the Mediterranean and beyond, including the Roman conquest of Britain which was not only a limited expeditionary operation, but one conceived to include long-term occupation and Roman settlement of the territories. The Han dynasty of ancient China also famously used expeditionary warfare to deal with

5616-628: The final K-4 models. The aircraft was often referred to by the folk-designation, 'Me 109', particularly by the Allies. The aircraft was often nicknamed Messer by its operators and opponents alike; the name was not only an abbreviation of the manufacturer but also the German word for "knife". In Finland, the Bf 109 was known as Mersu , although this was originally (and still is) the Finnish nickname for Mercedes-Benz cars. Soviet aviators nicknamed

5720-590: The following data from Italian and German sources: Expeditionary warfare The earliest examples of expeditionary warfare come from the Sea Peoples , a term used for a confederation of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean , caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during the late 19th dynasty , and especially during Year 8 of Ramesses III of

5824-447: The fuselage. It also allowed simplification of the wing structure, since it did not have to bear the loads imposed during takeoff or landing. The one major drawback of this landing gear arrangement was its narrow wheel track , making the aircraft unstable while on the ground. To increase stability, the legs were splayed outward somewhat, creating another problem in that the loads imposed during takeoff and landing were transferred up through

5928-457: The future of air combat. The result of the studies was four broad outlines for future aircraft: Rüstungsflugzeug III was intended to be a short range interceptor, replacing the Arado Ar 64 and Heinkel He 51 biplanes then in service. In late March 1933, the RLM published the tactical requirements for a single-seat fighter in the document L.A. 1432/33. The projected fighter needed to have

6032-446: The head-to-head portion of the competition. The aircraft participating in the trials were the Arado Ar 80 V3, the Focke-Wulf Fw 159 V3, the Heinkel He 112 V4 and the Bf 109 V2. The He 112 arrived first, in early February 1936, followed by the rest of the prototypes by the end of the month. Because most fighter pilots of the Luftwaffe were used to biplanes with open cockpits , low wing loading, light g-forces and easy handling like

6136-490: The last day of the Battle of Britain. In response to a raid on several northern Italian cities, fifteen BR.20s with a strong CR.42 fighter escort bombed Ramsgate by day. The Italian bombers were sighted crossing Kent at a relatively low level. The bombers flew in formation, wingtip to wingtip. The open-cockpit, fixed-undercarriage fighter escorts accompanied them in a similar immaculate order. The Italian aircraft were painted pale sand yellow with green and red-brown mottling. This

6240-467: The legs at an angle. The small rudder of the Bf 109 was relatively ineffective at controlling the strong swing created by the powerful slipstream of the propeller during the early portion of the takeoff roll, and this sideways drift created disproportionate loads on the wheel opposite to the swing. If the forces imposed were large enough, the pivot point broke and the landing gear leg would collapse outward into its bay. Experienced pilots reported that

6344-445: The loads being distributed through the structure via a series of strong-points. By concentrating the loads in the firewall, the structure of the Bf 109 could be made relatively light and uncomplicated. An advantage of this design was that the main landing gear, which retracted through an 85-degree angle, was attached to the fuselage , making it possible to completely remove the wings for servicing without additional equipment to support

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6448-420: The lower radiator flap operated as part of the flap system), thereby increasing the effective flap area. When deployed, these devices effectively increased the wings' coefficient of lift. Fighters with liquid-cooled engines were vulnerable to hits in the cooling system. For this reason, on later Bf 109 F, G and K models, the two coolant radiators were equipped with a cut-off system. If one radiator leaked, it

6552-531: The main fighter used by the Corpo Aereo Italiano was a biplane, which, in purely technical terms, would be outclassed by more modern monoplanes, this was not the case all the time. On 11 and 23 November 1940, CR.42s flew two raids against Great Britain as part of the Corpo Aereo Italiano . Although the German Luftwaffe aircraft had difficulty flying in formation with the slower biplanes, the Falcos , though slower, and with an open cockpit , no radio, and armed with only two machine guns (a 12.7 mm/.5 in and

6656-451: The military strategy was introduced, for example in the Sixth Crusade (AD 1228.) Although all expeditionary warfare until the invention of the combustion engine was largely dependent on sailing vessels , it was with the creation of sophisticated rigging systems of the European Renaissance that the Age of Sail allowed a significant expansion in expeditionary warfare, notably by the European colonial empires . Some have argued that this

6760-549: The more powerful DB 600. The first redesign came with the E series , including the naval variant, the Bf 109T (T standing for Träger , carrier ). The Bf 109E ( Emil ) introduced structural changes to accommodate the heavier and more powerful 1,100 PS (809 kW; 1,085 hp) Daimler-Benz DB 601 engine, heavier armament and increased fuel capacity. Partly due to its limited 300 kilometres (190 miles) combat radius on internal fuel alone, resulting from its 660 km (410 mi) range limit, later variants of

6864-402: The nomadic Xiongnu people during the Han–Xiongnu War . Under the orders of Emperor Wu of Han , the Han launched numerous long-distance raids deep into Xiongnu territory. The exploits of famed Han generals Wei Qing and Huo Qubing were of particular note, with both recording multiple successful expeditions between the years 127 and 119 BC, eventually annexing the Hexi Corridor and expelling

6968-405: The pilot was in complete control of the aircraft. In March, the RLM received news that the British Supermarine Spitfire had been ordered into production. It was felt that a quick decision was needed to get the winning design into production as soon as possible, so on 12 March, the RLM announced the results of the competition in a document entitled Bf 109 Priority Procurement , which ordered

7072-403: The ports of Harwich, Felixstowe, Ipswich and Parkeston was manned by 99th (London Welsh) Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery . However, the number of heavy AA guns in the GDA had dwindled to eight by September 1940 as they had been redeployed to guard the RAF's vital fighter airfields. The next major operation of the CAI was on 29 October. This date is regarded by some historians as

7176-432: The propeller hub, itself covered by a more streamlined, half-elliptical shaped spinner that better matched the streamlining of the reshaped cowling, abandoning the smaller, conical spinner of the Emil subtype. The F-type also omitted the earlier stabilizer lift strut on either side of the tail. The improved aerodynamics were used by all later variants. Some Bf 109Fs were used late in the Battle of Britain in 1940 but

7280-403: The rear spar. The wing profile was the NACA 2R1 14.2 at the root and NACA 2R1 11.35 at the tip, with a thickness to chord ratio of 14.2% at the root and 11.35% at the tip. Another major difference from competing designs was the higher wing-loading. While the R-IV contract called for a wing-loading of less than 100 kg/m , Messerschmitt felt this was unreasonable. With a low wing-loading and

7384-423: The same way it had in the Mediterranean with short-term raids by Japanese pirates . Because the wokou were weakly resisted by the Ming dynasty , the raiding eventually developed into fully-fledged expeditionary warfare with the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598). The development in expeditionary operations reached a new level when during the Crusades the element of political alliance as an influence on

7488-484: The shape of the gunboat diplomacy approach. It was at this time that naval troops previously used almost exclusively for defence of vessels or minor beach operations were expanded to enable extended littoral operations. The colonial experience, though largely confined to the period before the First World War , persisted well into the 20th century . The period of the First World War and its aftermath in

7592-460: The spar and the leading edge. The tube channeled cooling air around the barrel and breech, exhausting from a slot at the rear of the wing. The installation was so cramped that parts of the MG 17's breech mechanism extended into an opening created in the flap structure. The much longer and heavier MG FF had to be mounted farther along the wing in an outer bay. A large hole was cut through the spar allowing

7696-407: The swing was easy to control, but some of the less-experienced pilots lost fighters on takeoff. Because of the large ground angle caused by the long legs, forward visibility while on the ground was very poor, a problem exacerbated by the sideways-opening canopy. This meant that pilots had to taxi in a sinuous fashion which also imposed stresses on the splayed undercarriage legs. Ground accidents were

7800-527: The time and embodied advanced structural design which was ahead of its contemporaries. In the early years of the war, the Bf 109 was the only single-engined fighter operated by the Luftwaffe, until the appearance of the Fw 190 . The Bf 109 remained in production from 1937 through 1945 in many different variants and sub-variants. The primary engines used were the Daimler-Benz DB 601 and DB 605 , though

7904-434: The unsuccessful amphibious landing at Gallipoli . Not only did this operation combine the elements of overall war planning context, multinational deployment of forces as part of the same operation, and use of troops prepared for the landings (as opposed to disembarkation ), as well as naval gunfire support that was limited during the era of sailing ships, but also included extensive use of combat engineering in support of

8008-599: The use of naval forces by staging not only operations that combined naval and land troops, but also eventuated in combining strategic multi-national forces during the land phase of the operation when Hannibal in his most famous achievement at the outbreak of the Second Punic War marched an army, which included war elephants , from Iberia over the Pyrenees and the Alps into Northern Italy . Following on

8112-415: The use of two large, complex brackets which were fitted to the firewall. These brackets incorporated the lower engine mounts and landing gear pivot point into one unit. A large forging attached to the firewall housed the main spar pick-up points and carried most of the wing loads. Contemporary design practice was usually to have these main load-bearing structures mounted on different parts of the airframe, with

8216-608: The variant came into common use only in the first half of 1941. The G series , or Gustav , was introduced in mid-1942. Its initial variants (G-1 through G-4) differed only in minor details from the Bf 109F, most notably in the more powerful 1,475 PS (1,085 kW; 1,455 hp) DB 605 engine. Odd-numbered variants were built as high-altitude fighters with a pressurized cockpit and GM-1 boost, while even-numbered variants were un-pressurized, air superiority fighters and fighter-bombers. Long-range photo-reconnaissance variants also existed. The later G series (G-5 through G-14)

8320-458: The war years. Another example of the Bf 109's advanced design was the use of a single, I-beam main spar in the wing, positioned more aft than usual (to give enough room for the retracted wheel), thus forming a stiff D-shaped torsion box. Most aircraft of the era used two spars, near the front and rear edges of the wings, but the D-box was much stiffer torsionally , and eliminated the need for

8424-432: The wing to accommodate large ammunition boxes and access hatches, an unusual ammunition feed was devised whereby a continuous belt holding 500 rounds was fed along chutes out to the wing tip, around a roller, and then back along the wing, forward and beneath the gun breech, to the wing root, where it coursed around another roller and back to the weapon. The gun barrel was placed in a long, large-diameter tube located between

8528-445: The wings very thin and light. Two synchronized machine guns were mounted in the cowling, firing over the top of the engine and through the propeller arc. An alternative arrangement was also designed, consisting of a single autocannon firing through a blast tube between the cylinder banks of the engine, known as a Motorkanone mount in German. This was also the choice of armament layout on some contemporary monoplane fighters, such as

8632-483: The wings, including automatically opening leading edge slats , and fairly large camber-changing flaps on the trailing edge . The slats increased the lift of the wing considerably when deployed, greatly improving the horizontal maneuverability of the aircraft, as several Luftwaffe veterans, such as Erwin Leykauf, attest. Messerschmitt also included ailerons that "drooped" when the flaps were lowered (F series and later

8736-485: The wings. Originally the aircraft was designated as Bf 109 by the RLM, since the design was submitted by the Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (literally "Bavarian Aircraft Works", meaning "Bavarian Aircraft Factory"; sometimes abbreviated B.F.W., akin to BMW ) during 1935. The company was renamed Messerschmitt AG after 11 July 1938 when Erhard Milch finally allowed Willy Messerschmitt to acquire

8840-468: Was 215 kg. Installation of the under-wing gun pods was a simple task that could be quickly performed by the unit's armourers, and the gun pods imposed a reduction of speed of only 8 km/h (5.0 mph). By comparison, the installed weight of a similar armament of two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon inside the wings of the Fw ;190A-4/U8 was 130 kg (287 lb), without ammunition. Although

8944-421: Was also the first modern expeditionary operation that used steam-powered warships and telegraph communications. The next development in the evolution of the expeditionary warfare was made during the expansion of the western European empires and the era of colonialism that also led to the inclusion of the expeditionary methods into the direct expression of national strategies to avoid full-scale conflicts in

9048-457: Was appointed Air Officer Commanding. Supporting aircraft included six CANT Z.1007bis of 172a Squadriglia used for reconnaissance and Caproni Ca.133 transport planes. On 25 September, the bombers arrived at their airfield in Melsbroek , Belgium after an eventful journey in which several planes force landed or even crashed due to malfunctions and poor weather. The fighters arrived later:

9152-565: Was asked to deliver three prototypes for head-to-head testing in late 1934. Design work on Messerschmitt Project Number P.1034 began in March 1934, just three weeks after the development contract was awarded. The basic mock-up was completed by May, and a more detailed design mock-up was ready by January 1935. The RLM designated the design as type "Bf 109", the next available from a block of numbers assigned to BFW. The first prototype ( Versuchsflugzeug 1 or V1 ), with civilian registration D-IABI ,

9256-518: Was called the Me 109 by Allied aircrew and some German aces, even though this was not the official German designation. The plane was designed by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser , who worked at Bayerische Flugzeugwerke during the early to mid-1930s. It was conceived as an interceptor . However, later models were developed to fulfill multiple tasks, serving as bomber escort , fighter-bomber , day -, night-, all-weather fighter , ground-attack aircraft , and aerial reconnaissance aircraft. It

9360-690: Was camouflage more suitable for a more exotic climate than that found in Britain in late October. Five Italian aircraft suffered damage due to anti-aircraft guns . At least one of the bombers was seen at 16:40 hours in Deal, Kent that afternoon, some 14 miles from Ramsgate and dropped three high-explosive bombs, one just outside the Officers' Mess at the Royal Marine Depot, Deal , killing Second Lieutenant Nelson, four Marines, and one private from

9464-470: Was completed by May 1935, but the new German engines were not yet ready. To get the "R III" designs into the air, the RLM acquired four Rolls-Royce Kestrel VI engines by trading Rolls-Royce a Heinkel He 70 Blitz for use as an engine test-bed. Messerschmitt received two of these engines and adapted the engine mounts of V1 to take the V-12 engine upright. V1 made its maiden flight at the end of May 1935 at

9568-504: Was generally hampered by the inadequacy of its equipment. The Italian dictator Benito Mussolini insisted on providing an element of the Italian Royal Air Force ( Regia Aeronautica ) to assist his German ally during the Battle of Britain. On 10 September 1940, the CAI was formed, under the formal aegis of the 1a Squadra Aerea di Milano ("First 'Milan' Air Command "). Generale di Squadra Aerea Rino Corso-Fougier

9672-405: Was hydraulic, making it impossible to change pitch without engine running. If, God forbid, you turned off the engine at high pitch, it was impossible to turn the propeller and was very hard to start the engine again. Finally, the German ammo counter was also a great thing. Reflecting Messerschmitt's belief in low-weight, low-drag, simple monoplanes, the armament was placed in the fuselage. This kept

9776-470: Was lost to mechanical fault or navigation error, the pilot (Salvatori) was captured. In addition, four bombers eventually force landed, two fighters were destroyed on landing, and another eight fighters landed with damage, with over 20 aviators missing, dead or wounded. British had two fighters slightly damaged. One of the Fiats (MM.5701) was repaired by the British and subsequently evaluated by Eric Brown ; this

9880-477: Was nicknamed by Luftwaffe personnel as Die Beule ("the bump/bulge") because of the cowling's characteristic, bulging covers for the breeches of the 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns , with the separate Beule covers eliminated by the time of the G-10 model's introduction of a subtly reshaped upper cowling. In July 1937, not long after the public debut of the new fighter, three Bf 109Bs took part in

9984-479: Was overweight and underpowered, and the design was abandoned after three prototypes had been built. The parasol winged Fw 159, potentially inspired by the same firm's earlier Focke-Wulf Fw 56 , was always considered by the E-Stelle Travemünde facility's staff to be a compromise between a biplane and an aerodynamically more efficient, low-wing monoplane. Although it had some advanced features, it used

10088-512: Was possible to fly on the second or to fly for at least five minutes with both closed. In 1943, Oberfeldwebel Edmund Roßmann got lost and landed behind Soviet lines. He agreed to show the Soviets how to service the plane. Soviet machine gun technician Viktor M. Sinaisky recalled: The Messer was a very well designed plane. First, it had an engine of an inverted type, so it could not be knocked out from below. It also had two water radiators with

10192-500: Was produced in a multitude of variants, with uprated armament and provision for kits of packaged, generally factory-installed parts known as Umrüst-Bausätze ("conversion kits", usually contracted to Umbau ) and adding a "/U" suffix to the aircraft designation when installed. Field kits known as Rüstsätze were also available for the G-series but those did not change the aircraft title. By early 1944, tactical requirements resulted in

10296-480: Was secured by two quick-release screw fittings on the firewall. All of the main pipe connections were colour-coded and grouped in one place, where possible, and electrical equipment plugged into junction boxes mounted on the firewall. The entire powerplant could be removed or replaced as a unit in a matter of minutes, a potential step to the eventual adoption of the unitized-powerplant Kraftei engine mounting concept used by many German combat aircraft designs, later in

10400-562: Was supplied to several states during World War II and served with several countries for many years after the war. The Bf 109 is the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 34,248 airframes produced from 1936 to April 1945. Some of the Bf 109 production took place in Nazi concentration camps through slave labor . The Bf 109 was flown by the three top-scoring fighter aces of all time, who claimed 928 victories among them while flying with Jagdgeschwader 52 , mainly on

10504-458: Was that the only place available to mount additional guns was in the wings. Only one spot was available in each wing, between the wheel well and slats, with room for only one gun, either a 7.92 mm MG 17 machine gun , a 20 mm MG FF or a 20 mm MG FF/M cannon. The first version of the Bf 109 to have wing guns was the C-1, which had one MG 17 in each wing. To avoid redesigning

10608-537: Was the first revolution in military affairs that changed national strategies, operational methods, and tactics both at sea and on the land. One notable example of this evolution was the French invasion of Egypt (1798). Though a significantly expanded expeditionary operation, the Crimean War was the first example of a planned expeditionary campaign that was directed as part of a multinational coalition strategy. It

10712-453: Was to be armed with either a single 20 mm MG C/30 engine-mounted cannon firing through the propeller hub as a Motorkanone , or two synchronized , engine cowl-mounted 7.92 mm (.312 in) MG 17 machine guns , or one lightweight engine-mounted 20 mm MG FF cannon with two 7.92 mm MG 17s. The MG C/30 was an airborne adaption of the 2 cm FlaK 30 anti-aircraft gun, which fired very powerful "Long Solothurn" ammunition, but

10816-560: Was very heavy and had a low rate of fire. It was also specified that the wing loading should be kept below 100 kg/m . The performance was to be evaluated based on the fighter's level speed, rate of climb , and maneuverability, in that order. It has been suggested that Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW) was originally not invited to participate in the competition due to personal animosity between Willy Messerschmitt and RLM director Erhard Milch ; however, recent research by Willy Radinger and Walter Shick indicates that this may not have been

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