Misplaced Pages

#808191

97-490: The Fair has been celebrated since 1957. Tourism around The Fair is a main driver of the city's economy during the end of the year. It is also known as the " sugar cane fair" (referring to a crop vital to the local economy) and "Feria de la salsa" ( Salsa music fair). On 7 August 1956, a huge explosion in Cali destroyed most of the city's infrastructure and many people died, leaving the city in an economic recession. The next year,

194-586: A combine , or sugarcane harvester . The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco /  John Deere . The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest 100 long tons (100 t) each hour, but harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to

291-419: A genetic map developed for USDA ARS -run breeding programs for brown rust of sugarcane . Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus . Unlike legumes and other nitrogen-fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacteria, G. diazotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of

388-403: A trade . This was often for a fixed length of time, usually seven years or less. Apprenticeship was not the same as indentureship, although many apprentices were tricked into falling into debt and thus having to indenture themselves for years more to pay off such sums. Like any loan , an indenture could be sold. Most masters had to depend on middlemen or ships' masters to recruit and transport

485-610: A better life. An American law passed in 1833 abolished the imprisonment of debtors, which made prosecuting runaway servants more difficult, increasing the risk of indenture contract purchases. The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , passed in the wake of the American Civil War , made involuntary indentured servitude illegal in the United States. Through its introduction,

582-541: A choice. West Indian planters, therefore, needed new workers, and they found cheap labour in China and India. The people were subject to indenture , a long-established form of contract, which bound them to unfree labour for a fixed term. The conditions where the indentured servants worked were frequently abysmal, owing to a lack of care among the planters. The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836. The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to

679-516: A country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, as in North America, sugarcanes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, as in the French island of Réunion , sugarcane is often harvested up to 10 years before replanting. Sugarcane

776-569: A major reception centre for indentured Indians from India who came to work on plantations following the abolition of slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948) declares in Article 4 "No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms". More specifically, it is dealt with by article 1(a) of

873-433: A much higher rate than men due to the high population of men already in the colonies. However, women had to prove their status as single and eligible to emigrate, as married women could not leave without their husbands. Many women seeking escape from abusive relationships were willing to take that chance. The Indian Immigration Act of 1883 prevented women from exiting India as widowed or single in order to escape. Arrival in

970-654: A parent's consent. Such differences in social classes would ensure that alliances between the two groups would not lead to revolts towards plantation owners and managers. As well, during periods of mass indentured servitude of Irish peoples in the Caribbean, certain Irish individuals would use enslaved labour to profit financially and climb the ladder of social class. Historians Kristen Block and Jenny Shaw write that: "the Irish - by virtue of their European heritage - gained […] greater social and economic mobility." An example

1067-410: A perennial tropical grass , exhibits a unique growth pattern characterized by lateral shoots emerging at its base, leading to the development of multiple stems. These stems typically attain a height of 3 to 4 meters (approximately 10 to 13 feet) and possess a diameter of about 5 centimeters (approximately 2 inches). As these stems mature, they evolve into cane stalks, constituting a substantial portion of

SECTION 10

#1732788016809

1164-412: A prepaid lump sum , as payment for some good or service (e.g. travel), purported eventual compensation, or debt repayment. An indenture may also be imposed involuntarily as a judicial punishment . The practice has been compared to the similar institution of slavery , although there are differences. Historically, in an apprenticeship , an apprentice worked with no pay for a master tradesman to learn

1261-460: A process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60% solids by weight. The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide , which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate . The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to

1358-864: A significant number of ethnic Indians, Southeast Asians, and Chinese people settling in various parts of the world. In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50% of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji , South Africa , Myanmar , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Indonesia , the Philippines , Guyana , Jamaica, Trinidad , Martinique, French Guiana , Guadeloupe, Grenada , St. Lucia , St. Vincent , St. Kitts , St. Croix , Suriname, Nevis , and Mauritius . Between 1863 and 1900, merchants and plantation owners in Queensland and New South Wales (now part of

1455-428: A tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 60 cm (24 in) of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom . It is a C 4 plant , able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into biomass . In primary growing regions across the tropics and subtropics , sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m of cane. Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of

1552-1037: A virus vector, which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt . Sesamia grisescens is a major pest in Papua New Guinea and so is a serious concern for the Australian industry were it to cross over. To head off such a problem, the Federal Government has pre-announced that they would cover 80% of response costs if it were necessary. Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by Candidatus Phytoplasma sacchari , whiptail disease or sugarcane smut , pokkah boeng caused by Fusarium moniliforme , Xanthomonas axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming Disease, and red rot disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum . Viral diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus , maize streak virus , and sugarcane yellow leaf virus. Yang et al. , 2017 provides

1649-438: Is 99% sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugarcane-producing tropics increases demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining. Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake. Bagasse , the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted,

1746-469: Is a former indentured servant in Barbados, Cornelius Bryan, would go on to own land and enslaved people himself, demonstrating the tiers between servant and slave classes. The Indian indenture system was a system of indenture by which two million Indians called coolies were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from

1843-464: Is a species of tall, perennial grass (in the genus Saccharum , tribe Andropogoneae ) that is used for sugar production . The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sucrose , which accumulates in the stalk internodes . Sugarcanes belong to the grass family, Poaceae , an economically important flowering plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum , and many forage crops. It

1940-493: Is best seen here as women were still subjected to the control of the plantation owners as well as their newly assigned 'partner'. Indentured servitude of Irish and other European peoples occurred in seventeenth-century Barbados, and was fundamentally different from enslavement: an enslaved African's body was owned, as were the bodies of their children, while the labour of indentured servants was under contractual ownership of another person. Laws and racial hierarchy would allow for

2037-846: Is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples . Saccharum barberi was only cultivated in India after the introduction of S. officinarum . S. officinarum was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity . Beginning around 6,000 BP , several strains were selectively bred from the native Saccharum robustum . From New Guinea, it spread westwards to Maritime Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum . The second domestication center

SECTION 20

#1732788016809

2134-416: Is common. Billets (stalks or stalk sections) harvested by a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, called ratoons . Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In

2231-587: Is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, and prepared in various ways in Southeast Asia, such as certain island communities of Indonesia as well as in Oceanic countries like Fiji . The direct use of sugar cane to produce ethanol for biofuel is projected to potentially surpass the production of white sugar as an end product. The term sugarcane is a combination of two words: "sugar" and "cane". The former ultimately derives from Sanskrit शर्करा ( śárkarā ) as

2328-498: Is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns up dry leaves, and chases away or kills venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level using cane knives or machetes . A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg (1,100 lb) of sugarcane per hour. Mechanical harvesting uses

2425-483: Is held on December 28, the fourth day of the Fair. The event celebrates the cultural traditions and history of the region, and is actually older than the Fair itself, dating back to the early 1910s. This Colombia -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This festival -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Sugar cane Sugarcane or sugar cane

2522-429: Is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea . Sugarcane was an ancient crop of the Austronesian and Papuan people . The best evidence available today points to the New Guinea area as the site of the original domestication of Saccharum officinarum . It was introduced to Polynesia , Island Melanesia , and Madagascar in prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors. It

2619-418: Is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, and is used to produce ethanol, rum, and citric acid . Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended with maple syrup , invert sugars, or corn syrup . Both forms of molasses are used in baking. Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in

2716-455: Is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules and to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation. Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which

2813-728: Is southern China and Taiwan, where S. sinense was a primary cultigen of the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane are reconstructed as *təbuS or *CebuS in Proto-Austronesian , which became *tebuh in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian . It was one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeter S. officinarum may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in maritime Southeast Asia. From Insular Southeast Asia, S. officinarum

2910-409: Is used for several purposes: The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax . Molasses is produced in two forms: blackstrap , which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purer molasses syrup. Blackstrap molasses

3007-707: The American Colonies between the 1630s and the American Revolution came under indentures . However, while almost half the European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies were indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired, and thus free wage labor was the more prevalent for Europeans in the colonies. Indentured people were numerically important mostly in

Cali Fair - Misplaced Pages Continue

3104-546: The British Empire , transportation of Indian labour to the island gained pace. By 1838, 25,000 Indian labourers had been transported to Mauritius. After the end of slavery, the West Indian sugar colonies tried the use of emancipated slaves , families from Ireland , Germany and Malta and Portuguese from Madeira . All these efforts failed to satisfy the labour needs of the colonies due to high mortality of

3201-692: The Canary Islands , and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands . An article on sugarcane cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al-'Awwam 's 12th-century Book on Agriculture . In colonial times, sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and African slaves . Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to

3298-858: The Caribbean (and the New World ) during his second voyage to the Americas, initially to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic ). The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; many sugar mills were constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s. The Portuguese introduced sugarcane to Brazil . By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and another 2,000 on

3395-509: The Ellice Islands (subsequently known as Tuvalu ). They became collectively known as " Kanakas ". Indentured labour existed in Papua New Guinea . It remains unknown how many Islanders the trade controversially kidnapped. Whether the system legally recruited Islanders, persuaded, deceived, coerced or forced them to leave their homes and travel by ship to Queensland remains difficult to determine. Official documents and accounts from

3492-735: The Natal region of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crops are found up to 1,600 m or 5,200 ft close to the equator in countries such as Colombia , Ecuador , and Peru . Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile, well-drained mollisols , through heavy cracking vertisols , infertile acid oxisols and ultisols , peaty histosols , to rocky andisols . Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of

3589-594: The Swan River area of Western Australia existed between 1829 and 1832. During the 1860s planters in Australia , Fiji , New Caledonia , and the Samoa Islands , in need of laborers, encouraged a trade in long-term indentured labor called "blackbirding". At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad. Over a period of 40 years, from

3686-527: The turnip moth , the sugarcane borer ( Diatraea saccharalis ), the African sugarcane borer ( Eldana saccharina ), the Mexican rice borer ( Eoreuma loftini ), the African armyworm ( Spodoptera exempta ), leafcutter ants , termites , spittlebugs (especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta ), and Migdolus fryanus (a beetle ). The planthopper insect Eumetopina flavipes acts as

3783-488: The "indentured" and "slaves" to be treated differently, as well as their identities to be defined differently.   Barbados is an example of a colony in which the separation between enslaved Africans and "servants" was codified into law. Distinct legal "acts" were created in 1661 treating each party as a separate group. The British ruling class anxieties over Irish loyalties would lead to harsh policing of Irish servants' movements, for instance, needing "reason" to leave

3880-534: The 1651 Battle of Worcester . King James II acted similarly after the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685, and the use of such measures continued into the 18th century. Indentured servants could not marry without the permission of their master, were frequently subject to physical punishment, and did not receive legal favor from the courts. Female indentured servants in particular might be raped and/or sexually abused by their masters. If children were produced

3977-579: The 18th and early 19th centuries, children from the UK were often kidnapped and sold into indentured labor in the American and Caribbean colonies (often without any indentures). Indentured servitude was also used by governments in Britain for captured prisoners of war in rebellions and civil wars. Oliver Cromwell sent into indentured service thousands of prisoners captured in the 1648 Battle of Preston and

Cali Fair - Misplaced Pages Continue

4074-903: The British introduced the Indian indenture system, resulting in a permanent Indian South African presence. On 18 January 1826, the Government of the French Indian Ocean island of Réunion laid down terms for the introduction of Indian labourers to the colony. Each man was required to appear before a magistrate and declare that he was going voluntarily. The contract was for five years with pay of ₹8 (12¢ US) per month and rations provided labourers had been transported from Pondicherry and Karaikal . The first attempt at importing Indian labour into Mauritius , in 1829, ended in failure, but by 1834, with abolition of slavery throughout most of

4171-576: The Caribbean (primarily the English-speaking islands of the Caribbean) before 1840. In 1838, with the abolition of slavery at its onset, the British were in the process of transporting a million Indians out of India and into the Caribbean to take the place of the recently freed Africans (freed in 1833) in indentureship. Women, looking for what they believed would be a better life in the colonies, were specifically sought after and recruited at

4268-435: The Caribbean, South American, Indian Ocean, and Pacific island nations. The need for sugar crop laborers became a major driver of large migrations, some people voluntarily accepting indentured servitude and others forcibly imported as slaves . Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity, totalling 1.9 billion tonnes in 2020, with Brazil accounting for 40% of

4365-626: The Commonwealth of Australia) brought between 55,000 and 62,500 people from the South Pacific islands to work on sugarcane plantations. An estimated one-third of these workers were coerced or kidnapped into slavery (known as blackbirding ); many others were paid very low wages. Between 1904 and 1908, most of the 10,000 remaining workers were deported in an effort to keep Australia racially homogeneous and protect white workers from cheap foreign labour. Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane

4462-564: The Salsódromo included 1,400 dancers, who paraded down Avenida Roosevelt, one of the main roads of the city. Other events include tascas (international food street), salsa concerts, bullfights (which have attracted criticism and protests), parades, athletic activities/competitions and cultural exhibitions. At times the Fair has included Vallenato and Merengue groups from Colombia and surrounding Caribbean countries, and samba schools from Rio de Janeiro , Brazil. The Cali Viejo Carnival

4559-599: The United States, but economic historians dispute its long-term impact. Sharon Salinger argues that the economic crisis that followed the war made long-term labor contracts unattractive. Her analysis of Philadelphia 's population shows that the percentage of bound citizens fell from 17% to 6.4% throughout the war. William Miller posits a more moderate theory, stating that "the Revolution...wrought disturbances upon white servitude. But these were temporary rather than lasting". David Galenson supports this theory by proposing that

4656-829: The approach to crop management embraced in the cultivation of sugarcane. Ultimately, the successful cultivation of this valuable crop demands a thoughtful integration of various factors to optimize its growth and productivity. Sugarcane is a cash crop , but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane genome is one of the most complex plant genomes known, mostly due to interspecific hybridization and polyploidization. The two centers of domestication for sugarcane are one for Saccharum officinarum by Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both S. officinarum and S. sinense

4753-512: The availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Indentured Indians from India were imported, for such projects as the Uganda Railway , as farm labor, and as miners. They and their descendants formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although not without engendering resentment from others. Idi Amin 's expulsion of the "Asians" from Uganda in 1972 was an expulsion of Indo-Africans. The majority of

4850-445: The cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside its harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting does not require

4947-429: The carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar . As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar . When no more sugar can be economically recovered,

SECTION 50

#1732788016809

5044-428: The colonial government, and inequality between the upper and lower class in colonial society. Indentured servitude was the primary source of labor for early American colonists until the rebellion. Little changed in the immediate aftermath of Bacon's Rebellion; however, the rebellion did cause a general distrust of servant labor and fear of future rebellion. The fear of indentured servitude eventually cemented itself into

5141-468: The colonies brought unexpected conditions of poverty, homelessness, and little to no food as the high numbers of emigrants overwhelmed the small villages and flooded the labor market. Many were forced into signing labor contracts that exposed them to the hard field labor on the plantation. Additionally, on arrival to the plantation, single women were 'assigned' a man as they were not allowed to live alone. The subtle difference between slavery and indenture-ship

5238-609: The crop originated in Southeast Asia. As sugar was traded and spread West, this became سُكَّر ( sukkar ) in Arabic , zúcchero in Italian , zuccarum in Latin , and eventually sucre in both Middle French and Middle English . The second term "cane" began to be used alongside it as the crop was grown on plantations in the Caribbean . G anna is the Hindi word for sugarcane. Sugarcane,

5335-482: The details regarding indentured labor varied across import and export regions and most overseas contracts were made before the voyage with the understanding that prospective migrants were competent enough to make overseas contracts on their own account and that they preferred to have a contract before the voyage. Most labor contracts made were in increments of five years, with the opportunity to extend another five years. Many contracts also provided free passage home after

5432-581: The dictated labor was completed. However, there were generally no policies regulating employers once the labor hours were completed, which led to frequent ill-treatment. In 1643, the European population of Barbados was 37,200 (86% of the population). During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms , at least 10,000 Scottish and Irish prisoners of war were transported as indentured laborers to the colonies. A half million Europeans went as indentured servants to

5529-533: The eighteenth century, it remains true that a certain small part of the European colonial population of America was brought by force, and a much larger portion came in response to deceit and misrepresentation on the part of the spirits [recruiting agents]." One "spirit" named William Thiene was known to have spirited away 840 people from Britain to the colonies in a single year. Historian Lerone Bennett Jr. notes that "Masters given to flogging often did not care whether their victims were black or white." Also, during

5626-648: The eighth century, Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from medieval India to the other parts of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia , Egypt , North Africa, and Andalusia . By the 10th century, sources state that every village in Mesopotamia grew sugarcane. It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in

5723-464: The end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large Indian diaspora , which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius ) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji ), as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population. The British wanted local black Africans to work in Natal as workers. But the locals refused, and as a result,

5820-442: The entire plant, accounting for roughly 75% of its composition. A fully mature cane stalk generally comprises a composition of around 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water content. The successful cultivation of sugarcane hinges on a delicate interplay of several factors, including climatic conditions, soil properties, irrigation methods, fertilization practices, pest and disease management,

5917-419: The field to be set on fire; the residue left in the field by the machine consists of cane tops and dead leaves, which serve as mulch for the next planting. The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled with imidacloprid (Confidor) or chlorpyrifos (Lorsban). Other important pests are the larvae of some butterfly/moth species, including

SECTION 60

#1732788016809

6014-491: The final molasses still contains 20–30% sucrose and 15–25% glucose and fructose. To produce granulated sugar , in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days. Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the Southern United States, as far north as coastal North Carolina . The juice

6111-552: The global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total). Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation declined there during the late 20th century, and is primarily confined to small plantations in Florida , Louisiana , and southeast Texas in the 21st century. Sugarcane cultivation ceased in Hawaii when

6208-435: The government coordinated a fair as an opportunity to celebrate the overcome of this tragedy and revitalize the economy. The first fair lasted 40 days and was a success. Many people were able to sell handmade goods throughout the celebration of the events. The fair continued to grow over the years, and the city's economy was boosted around the time of the fair. Over time, it became the most important cultural and economic event of

6305-588: The hearts of Americans, leading towards the reliance on enslaved Africans. This helped to ingrain the idea of racial segregation and unite white Americans under race rather than economic or social class. Doing so prevented the potential for future rebellion and changed the way that agriculture was approached. The American and British governments passed several laws that helped foster the decline of indentures. The UK Parliament's Passenger Vessels Act 1803 regulated travel conditions aboard ships to make transportation more expensive, and to hinder landlords' tenants seeking

6402-422: The highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions. Sugarcane consumes 9% of the world's potash fertilizer production. Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method. Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries, such as the United States and Australia, billet planting

6499-658: The immigrants were free to work for themselves or another employer. At least one economist has suggested that "indentured servitude was an economic arrangement designed to iron out imperfections in the capital market". In some cases, the indenture was made with a ship's master, who sold the indenture to an employer in the colonies. Most indentured servants worked as farm laborers or domestic servants, although some were apprenticed to craftsmen. The terms of an indenture were not always enforced by American courts, although runaways were usually sought out and returned to their employer. Between one-half and two-thirds of European immigrants to

6596-520: The labour would be extended by two years. Cases of successful prosecution for these crimes were very uncommon, as indentured servants were unlikely to have access to a magistrate, and social pressure to avoid such brutality could vary by geography and cultural norm. The situation was particularly difficult for indentured women, because in both low social class and gender, they were believed to be particularly prone to vice, making legal redress unusual. The American Revolution severely limited immigration to

6693-490: The last operating sugar plantation in the state shut down in 2016. Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than 6–7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between 22°N and 22°S , and some up to 33°N and 33°S . When sugarcane crops are found outside this range, such as

6790-578: The late 18th century, indentured servitude was common in British America . It was often a way for Europeans to migrate to the American colonies: they signed an indenture in return for a costly passage. However, the system was also used to exploit many of them, as well as Asians (mostly from India and China) who wanted to migrate to the New World. These Asian people were used mainly to construct roads and railway systems. After their indenture expired,

6887-573: The mid-19th century to the early 20th century, labor for the sugar-cane fields of Queensland , Australia included an element of coercive recruitment and indentured servitude of the 62,000 South Sea Islanders . The workers came mainly from Melanesia – mainly from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu – with a small number from Polynesian and Micronesian areas such as Samoa , the Gilbert Islands (subsequently known as Kiribati ) and

6984-543: The new arrivals and their reluctance to continue working at the end of their indenture. On 16 November 1844, the British Indian Government legalised emigration to Jamaica , Trinidad and Demerara ( Guyana ). The first ship, Whitby , sailed from Calcutta for British Guiana on 13 January 1838, and arrived in Berbice on 5 May 1838. Transportation to the Caribbean stopped in 1848 due to problems in

7081-442: The north coast of Brazil, Demarara , and Suriname . Sugar, often in the form of molasses, was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to make rum . The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from

7178-445: The numbers of British indentured servants never recovered, and that Europeans of other nationalities replaced them. Indentured servitude began its decline after Bacon's Rebellion , a servant uprising against the government of Colonial Virginia. This was due to multiple factors, such as the treatment of servants, support of native tribes in the surrounding area, a refusal to expand the amount of land an indentured servant could work by

7275-647: The period often conflict with the oral tradition passed down to the descendants of workers. Stories of blatantly violent kidnapping tend to relate to the first 10–15 years of the trade. Australia deported many of these Islanders back to their places of origin in the period 1906–1908 under the provisions of the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 . A significant number of construction projects in British East Africa and South Africa , required vast quantities of labor, exceeding

7372-609: The plantations from which they were employed. Similarly, the laws regarding slavery would prevent enslaved Africans from doing the same. While enslaved Africans - and for a period, free Africans - were not allowed to use the court system in any manner, even to act as a witness, Barbados would allow "white servants" to go to court if they felt that they had received poor treatment. Additionally, children of African descent were offered no supplementary protection, while children of English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh extraction who were sent to Barbados as indentured servants could not work without

7469-483: The population of Mauritius are descendants of Indian indentured labourers brought in between 1834 and 1921. Initially brought to work the sugar estates following the abolition of slavery in the British Empire an estimated half a million indentured laborers were present on the island during this period. Aapravasi Ghat , in the bay at Port Louis and now a UNESCO site, was the first British colony to serve as

7566-399: The region from Virginia north to New Jersey . Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000; of these 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured. About 75% of these were under the age of 25. The age of adulthood for men

7663-450: The removal of organic and nutrient-rich material, which can decrease future crop yields. It can also result in sediments and other pollutants being washed into aquatic habitats, which can result in a wide range of environmental issues, including eutrophication and acidification. Sugarcane cultivation can also result in soil compaction, which is caused by the use of heavy, infield machinery. Along with impacting invertebrate and fauna within

7760-483: The removal of soil at harvest, as well as improper irrigation practices, which can result in erosion. Erosion is especially significant when the sugarcane is grown on slopes or hillsides, which increases the rate of water runoff. Generally, it is recommended that sugarcane is not planted in areas with a slope greater than 8%. However, in certain areas, such as parts of the Caribbean and South Africa, slopes greater than 20% have been planted. Increased erosion can lead to

7857-446: The sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe. Toil in the sugar plantations became a main basis for a vast network of forced population movement , supplying people to work under brutal coercion. The passage of the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act led to the abolition of slavery through most of the British Empire , and many of the emancipated slaves no longer worked on sugarcane plantations when they had

7954-420: The selection of specific varieties, and the timing of the harvest. In terms of yield, the average production of cane stalk stands at 60–70 tonnes per hectare (equivalent to 24–28 long tons per acre or 27–31 short tons per acre) annually. However, this yield figure is not fixed and can vary significantly, ranging from 30 to 180 tonnes per hectare. This variance is contingent upon the level of knowledge applied and

8051-541: The sugar industry and resumed in Demerara and Trinidad in 1851 and Jamaica in 1860. This system of labour was coined by contemporaries at the time as a "new system of slavery", a term later used by historian Hugh Tinker in his influential book of the same name. The Indian indenture system was finally banned in 1917. Although the system was officially suspended, those who were serving indentures at that time were required to complete their terms of service, thereby extending

8148-555: The sugarcane's stem. Coating seeds with the bacteria was assayed in 2006 with the intention of enabling crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use. At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease in Central America in the past two decades, most of them sugarcane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake. Additionally, some of

8245-649: The system into the early 1920s. According to The Economist , "When the Indian Legislative Council finally ended indenture...it did so because of pressure from Indian nationalists and declining profitability, rather than from humanitarian concerns." Convicts transported to the Australian colonies before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form of indentured labor. Indentured servants also emigrated to New South Wales . The Van Diemen's Land Company used skilled indentured labor for periods of seven years or less. A similar scheme for

8342-489: The top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is " carbonatation ", which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate. After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon . Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role. Some remaining color-forming impurities are adsorbed by

8439-401: The upper layers of the soil, compaction can also lead to decreased porosity. This in turn can increase surface runoff , resulting in greater leaching and erosion. Indentured servitude Indentured servitude is a form of labor in which a person is contracted to work without salary for a specific number of years. The contract called an " indenture ", may be entered voluntarily for

8536-414: The workers are being exposed to hazards such as: high temperatures, harmful pesticides, and poisonous or venomous animals. This occurs during the process of cutting the sugarcane manually, causing physical ailments due to constant repetitive movements for hours every work day. Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white" sugar

8633-401: The workers, so indentureships were commonly sold by such men to planters or others upon the ships' arrival. Like slaves, their prices went up or down, depending on supply and demand. When the indenture (loan) was paid off, the worker was free but not always in good health or of sound body. Sometimes they might be given a plot of land or a small sum to buy it, but the land was usually poor. Until

8730-517: The world total. Sugarcane accounts for 79% of sugar produced globally (most of the rest is made from sugar beets ). About 70% of the sugar produced comes from Saccharum officinarum and its hybrids. All sugarcane species can interbreed , and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids . White sugar is produced from sugarcane in specialized mill factories. Sugarcane reeds are used to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded flower head of Saccharum edule ( duruka )

8827-565: The year. In the 1980s, salsa singers and dancers became a popular part of the fair. In 2020, the Fair was held virtually due to the COVID-19 pandemic . 2021 saw the introduction of Fiesta de Mi Pueblo, a parade celebrating the 42 municipalities of Valle del Cuaca . The Fair is opened by a cabalgata (parade of horseback riders) and the Salsódromo (also called the Salsa Marathon), a parade of salsa musicians and dancers. In 2023,

8924-660: Was 24 years (not 21); those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about three years. Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that "many of the servants were nephews, nieces, cousins, and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labor once in America." Several instances of kidnapping for transportation to the Americas are recorded, such as that of Peter Williamson (1730–1799). Historian Richard Hofstadter pointed out that "Although efforts were made to regulate or check their activities, and they diminished in importance in

9021-564: Was 74 tonnes per hectare, led by Peru with 121 tonnes per hectare. The theoretical possible yield for sugarcane is about 280 tonnes per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 tonnes of cane per hectare. From 2008 to 2016, production of standards-compliant sugarcane experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 52%, while conventional sugarcane increased at less than 1%. The cultivation of sugarcane can lead to increased soil loss through

9118-440: Was also introduced to southern China and India by Austronesian traders around 1200 to 1000 BC. The Persians and Greeks encountered the famous "reeds that produce honey without bees" in India between the sixth and fourth centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture. Merchants began to trade in sugar, which was considered a luxurious and expensive spice, from India. In the 18th century, sugarcane plantations began in

9215-680: Was exported to the USSR , where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry. Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Cuba, Guyana, Belize , Barbados , and Haiti, along with the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands. About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from S. officinarum and hybrids using this species. Sugarcane cultivation requires

9312-558: Was extracted with horse- or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, like maple syrup , in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener. It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product. In 2022, global production of sugarcane was 1.92 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 38% of the world total, India with 23%, and China producing 5% (table). Worldwide, 26 million hectares were devoted to sugarcane cultivation in 2020. The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2022

9409-603: Was spread eastward into Polynesia and Micronesia by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized with S. sinense and S. barberi . From there, it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean . The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts. Around

#808191