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89-792: In addition to the river, it crosses the flood plain on its eastern bank in New York created by the confluence of the Delaware and Callicoon Creek , one of its major tributaries in the area, just downstream. As a result, the total length of the bridge's seven spans is 966 feet (294 m). It is the longest bridge on the Upper Delaware . The Callicoon Bridge uses the multi-girder design, with steel stringers supported by concrete piers and abutments . There are no overhead members. Traffic crosses on an asphalt deck 25 feet (7.6 m) wide, enough to hold one lane in each direction as well as

178-400: A 1-inch-thick (25 mm) board, 8/4 (eight quarter) is a 2-inch-thick (51 mm) board, etc. This "quarter" system is rarely used for softwood lumber; although softwood decking is sometimes sold as 5/4, even though it is actually one inch thick (from milling 1 ⁄ 8  in or 3.2 mm off each side in a motorized planing step of production). The "quarter" system of reference is

267-407: A channel. Sediments from the crevasse spread out as delta -shaped deposits with numerous distributary channels. Crevasse formation is most common in sections of rivers where the river bed is accumulating sediments ( aggrading ). Repeated flooding eventually builds up an alluvial ridge, whose natural levees and abandoned meander loops may stand well above most of the floodplain. The alluvial ridge

356-405: A concrete sidewalk and steel guardrails . The bridge has seven spans of roughly equal length, making it a total of 966 feet (294.4 m) long. This makes it the longest bridge on the Upper Delaware . The Delaware here runs through a narrow, heavily wooded valley with steep hills rising as high as almost 700 feet (210 m) above it. The bridge crosses the river from New York to Pennsylvania in

445-554: A flood-prone property to qualify for government-subsidized insurance, a local community must adopt an ordinance that protects the floodway and requires that new residential structures built in Special Flood Hazard Areas be elevated to at least the level of the 100-year flood. Commercial structures can be elevated or floodproofed to or above this level. In some areas without detailed study information, structures may be required to be elevated to at least two feet above

534-445: A floodplain. The quantity of sediments in a floodplain greatly exceeds the river load of sediments. Thus, floodplains are an important storage site for sediments during their transport from where they are generated to their ultimate depositional environment. When the rate at which the river is cutting downwards becomes great enough that overbank flows become infrequent, the river is said to have abandoned its floodplain. Portions of

623-472: A framer much time, because they are pre-cut by the manufacturer for use in 8-, 9-, and 10-foot ceiling applications, which means the manufacturer has removed a few inches or centimetres of the piece to allow for the sill plate and the double top plate with no additional sizing necessary. In the Americas, two-bys (2×4s, 2×6s, 2×8s, 2×10s, and 2×12s), named for traditional board thickness in inches, along with

712-423: A free bridge thereafter, and the company dissolved . No serious maintenance issues presented themselves, not even after the heavy floods that followed Hurricane Diane in 1955. The bridge was replaced with the current structure shortly thereafter, because it was getting old. More and heavier vehicles were crossing it regularly; the commission decided it was cheaper in the long run to build a new bridge than upgrade

801-440: A northeast-to-southwest direction. Half of the bridge's span crosses an extensive flood plain on the New York side resulting from the confluence of the Delaware and Callicoon Creek immediately downstream. There are also large islands within New York's side immediately upstream. Half the bridge's span is over the flood plain land; most of it is on the New York side of the state line. On either side are small settlements typical of

890-423: A pit for the pitman who worked below. In 1420 the island of Madeira  – an archipelago comprising four islands off the northwest coast of Africa and an autonomous region of Portugal – was discovered. King Henry VI sent settlers to Madeira and the settlers started clearing the huge expanses of forest in order to grow crops. Felled trees were made into planks by water-powered mills and

979-401: A primary sawmill . Re-sawing is the splitting of 1-to-12-inch (25–305 mm) hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a 10-foot-long (3.0 m) 2×4 ( 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 by 3 + 1 ⁄ 2  in or 38 by 89 mm) into two 1×4s ( 3 ⁄ 4 by 3 + 1 ⁄ 2  in or 19 by 89 mm) of the same length

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1068-462: A relatively small set of specified lengths; in all cases hardwoods are sold to the consumer by the board-foot (144 cubic inches or 2,360 cubic centimetres), whereas that measure is not used for softwoods at the retailer (to the cognizance of the buyer). Also in North America, hardwood lumber is commonly sold in a "quarter" system, when referring to thickness; 4/4 (four quarter) refers to

1157-463: A station in the small settlement, where trains stopped on their way between the Great Lakes and New York City. It grew in population, and by 1875 the local lumber industry reached its peak, with over 3,000 rafts leaving the village for markets and mills downriver. Other forest-product industries followed. Tanneries set up shop, drawn by the abundant Eastern Hemlock in the woods on both sides of

1246-526: A three-day flood of the Meuse and Rhine Rivers in 1993 found average sedimentation rates in the floodplain of between 0.57 and 1.0 kg/m . Higher rates were found on the levees (4 kg/m or more) and on low-lying areas (1.6 kg/m ). Sedimentation from the overbank flow is concentrated on natural levees, crevasse splays , and in wetlands and shallow lakes of flood basins. Natural levees are ridges along river banks that form from rapid deposition from

1335-452: A timber is referred to as one "timber" (材), and the dimensions of other structural components were quoted in multiples of "timber"; thus, as the width of the actual timber varied, the dimensions of other components were easily calculated, without resorting to specific figures for each scale. The dimensions of timbers in similar applications show a gradual diminution from the Sui dynasty (580–618) to

1424-443: A traditional North American lumber industry nomenclature used specifically to indicate the thickness of rough sawn hardwood lumber. In rough-sawn lumber it immediately clarifies that the lumber is not yet milled, avoiding confusion with milled dimension lumber which is measured as actual thickness after machining. Examples – 3 ⁄ 4 -inch, 19 mm, or 1x. In recent years architects, designers, and builders have begun to use

1513-426: A unit of dimensional lumber is limited by the height and girth of the tree it is milled from. In general the maximum length is 24 ft (7.32 m). Engineered wood products, manufactured by binding the strands, particles, fibers, or veneers of wood, together with adhesives, to form composite materials, offer more flexibility and greater structural strength than typical wood building materials. Pre-cut studs save

1602-468: Is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards . Lumber is mainly used for construction framing , as well as finishing (floors, wall panels , window frames ). Lumber has many uses beyond home building. Lumber is referred to as timber in the United Kingdom, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, while in other parts of

1691-410: Is a code beaten on to cut wood by a specially made hammer to show the logging licence. The basic understanding of lumber, or "sawn planks", came about in North America in the seventeenth century. Lumber is the most common and widely used method of sawing logs. Plain sawn lumber is produced by making the first cut on a tangent to the circumference of the log. Each additional cut is then made parallel to

1780-546: Is a problem in freshwater systems. Much of the phosphorus in freshwater systems comes from municipal wastewater treatment plants and agricultural runoff. Stream connectivity controls whether phosphorus cycling is mediated by floodplain sediments or by external processes. Under conditions of stream connectivity, phosphorus is better able to be cycled, and sediments and nutrients are more readily retained. Water in freshwater streams ends up in either short-term storage in plants or algae or long-term in sediments. Wet/dry cycling within

1869-406: Is advantageous for the rapid colonization of large areas of the floodplain. This allows them to take advantage of shifting floodplain geometry. For example, floodplain trees are fast-growing and tolerant of root disturbance. Opportunists (such as birds) are attracted to the rich food supply provided by the flood pulse. Floodplain ecosystems have distinct biozones. In Europe, as one moves away from

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1958-498: Is any area subject to inundation by a 100-year flood. A problem is that any alteration of the watershed upstream of the point in question can potentially affect the ability of the watershed to handle water, and thus potentially affects the levels of the periodic floods. A large shopping center and parking lot, for example, may raise the levels of 5-year, 100-year, and other floods, but the maps are rarely adjusted and are frequently rendered obsolete by subsequent development. In order for

2047-514: Is considered re-sawing. Structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been strongly opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, and fire resistance. Plastic fiberglass structural lumber can have a "class 1 flame spread rating of 25 or less, when tested in accordance with ASTM standard E 84," which means it burns more slowly than almost all treated wood lumber. A timber mark

2136-543: Is critical, such as trusses , rafters , laminating stock, I-beams and web joints. Machine grading measures a characteristic such as stiffness or density that correlates with the structural properties of interest, such as bending strength . The result is a more precise understanding of the strength of each piece of lumber than is possible with visually graded lumber, which allows designers to use full-design strength and avoid overbuilding. In Europe, strength grading of rectangular sawn lumber/timber (both softwood and hardwood)

2225-633: Is done according to EN-14081 and commonly sorted into classes defined by EN-338. For softwoods, the common classes are (in increasing strength) C16, C18, C24, and C30. There are also classes specifically for hardwoods and those in most common use (in increasing strength) are D24, D30, D40, D50, D60, and D70. For these classes, the number refers to the required 5th percentile bending strength in newtons per square millimetre. There are other strength classes, including T-classes based on tension intended for use in glulam . Grading rules for African and South American sawn lumber have been developed by ATIBT according to

2314-565: Is largely a result of flood control, hydroelectric development (such as reservoirs), and conversion of floodplains to agriculture use. Transportation and waste disposal also have detrimental effects. The result is the fragmentation of these ecosystems, resulting in loss of populations and diversity and endangering the remaining fragments of the ecosystem. Flood control creates a sharper boundary between water and land than in undisturbed floodplains, reducing physical diversity. Floodplain forests protect waterways from erosion and pollution and reduce

2403-406: Is minimally 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 by 3 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (38 mm × 89 mm). As previously noted, less wood is needed to produce a given finished size than when standards called for the green lumber to be the full nominal dimension. However, even the dimensions for finished lumber of a given nominal size have changed over time. In 1910, a typical finished 1-inch (25 mm) board

2492-515: Is more economical. There are various types of sawing: Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, often specified in millimetres or inches (but see below for information on nominal dimensions vs. actual dimensions). Carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4 (pictured) (also two-by-four and other variants, such as four-by-two in Australia, New Zealand, and

2581-603: Is required. Under the prescription of the Method of Construction (營造法式) issued by the Song dynasty government in the early twelfth century, timbers were standardized to eight cross-sectional dimensions. Regardless of the actual dimensions of the timber, the ratio between width and height was maintained at 1:1.5. Units are in Song dynasty inches (31.2 mm). Timber smaller than the 8th class were called "unclassed" (等外). The width of

2670-459: Is smaller than the nominal dimensions because modern technology makes it possible to use the logs more efficiently. For example, a "2×4" board historically started out as a green, rough board actually 2 by 4 inches (51 mm × 102 mm). After drying and planing, it would be smaller by a nonstandard amount. Today, a "2×4" board starts out as something smaller than 2 inches by 4 inches and not specified by standards, and after drying and planing

2759-673: Is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry – primarily softwood , from coniferous species, including pine , fir and spruce (collectively spruce-pine-fir ), cedar , and hemlock , but also some hardwood, for high-grade flooring. It is more commonly made from softwood than hardwoods, and 80% of lumber comes from softwood. In the United States and Canada, milled boards are called lumber , while timber describes standing or felled trees. In contrast, in Britain, and some other Commonwealth nations and Ireland,

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2848-708: Is topped by a channel belt formed by successive generations of channel migration and meander cutoff. At much longer intervals, the river may abandon the channel belt and build a new one at another position on the floodplain. This process is called avulsion and occurs at intervals of 10–1000 years. Historical avulsions leading to catastrophic flooding include the 1855 Yellow River flood and the 2008 Kosi River flood . Floodplains can form around rivers of any kind or size. Even relatively straight stretches of river are capable of producing floodplains. Mid-channel bars in braided rivers migrate downstream through processes resembling those in point bars of meandering rivers and can build up

2937-605: Is well utilised in the construction industry. Attempts to maintain lumber quality over time have been challenged by historical changes in the timber resources of the United States – from the slow-growing virgin forests common over a century ago to the fast-growing plantations now common in today's commercial forests. Resulting declines in lumber quality have been of concern to both the lumber industry and consumers and have caused increased use of alternative construction products. Machine stress-rated and machine-evaluated lumber are readily available for end-uses where high strength

3026-517: The American Lumber Standard Committee , appointed by the U.S. Secretary of Commerce . Design values for most species and grades of visually graded structural products are determined in accordance with ASTM standards, which consider the effect of strength reducing characteristics, load duration, safety, and other influencing factors. The applicable standards are based on results of tests conducted in cooperation with

3115-563: The Kosi River of India. Overbank flow takes place when the river is flooded with more water than can be accommodated by the river channel. Flow over the banks of the river deposits a thin veneer of sediments that is coarsest and thickest close to the channel. This is described as vertical accretion , since the deposits build upwards. In undisturbed river systems, overbank flow is frequent, typically occurring every one to two years, regardless of climate or topography. Sedimentation rates for

3204-463: The Nile and Mississippi river basins , heavily exploit floodplains. Agricultural and urban regions have developed near or on floodplains to take advantage of the rich soil and freshwater. However, the risk of inundation has led to increasing efforts to control flooding . Most floodplains are formed by deposition on the inside of river meanders and by overbank flow. Wherever the river meanders,

3293-702: The Sullivan County seat . Westbound traffic on Route 17B simply continues under the Route 97 overpass onto Mill Street, County Route 133 , which crosses under tracks used by the Central New York Railroad and others for freight transport, then turns north to parallel them, becoming Callicoon's Lower Main Street in the process. At Bridge Street a sign tells traffic to turn south again for the bridge. From northbound Route 97, vehicles bound for

3382-558: The USDA Forest Products Laboratory. Design Values for Wood Construction, which is a supplement to the ANSI/AF&;PA National Design Specification® for Wood Construction, provides these lumber design values, which are recognized by the model building codes. Canada has grading rules that maintain a standard among mills manufacturing similar woods to assure customers of uniform quality. Grades standardize

3471-557: The Yellow River in China – see list of deadliest floods . The worst of these, and the worst natural disaster (excluding famine and epidemics), was the 1931 China floods , estimated to have killed millions. This had been preceded by the 1887 Yellow River flood , which killed around one million people and is the second-worst natural disaster in history. The extent of floodplain inundation depends partly on flood magnitude, defined by

3560-684: The return period . In the United States, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) manages the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). The NFIP offers insurance to properties located within a flood-prone area, as defined by the Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM), which depicts various flood risks for a community. The FIRM typically focuses on the delineation of the 100-year flood inundation area, also known within

3649-404: The "quarter" system in specifications as a vogue of insider knowledge, though the materials being specified are finished lumber, thus conflating the separate systems and causing confusion. Hardwoods cut for furniture are cut in the fall and winter, after the sap has stopped running in the trees. If hardwoods are cut in the spring or summer the sap ruins the natural color of the lumber and decreases

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3738-409: The 4×4 (89 mm × 89 mm), are common lumber sizes used in modern construction. They are the basic building blocks for such common structures as balloon-frame or platform-frame housing. Dimensional lumber made from softwood is typically used for construction, while hardwood boards are more commonly used for making cabinets or furniture. Lumber's nominal dimensions are larger than

3827-582: The British Empire. The timber supply began to dwindle at the start of the twentieth century due to significant harvest volumes, so the logging industry was forced to seek timber elsewhere; hence, the expansion into the American West. Logs are converted into lumber by being sawn, hewn , or split . Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with irregular grain and large knots, to be used and

3916-560: The NFIP as the Special Flood Hazard Area. Where a detailed study of a waterway has been done, the 100-year floodplain will also include the floodway, the critical portion of the floodplain which includes the stream channel and any adjacent areas that must be kept free of encroachments that might block flood flows or restrict storage of flood waters. Another commonly encountered term is the Special Flood Hazard Area, which

4005-828: The UK), 2×6 , and 4×4 . The length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, eight, and twelve feet in length. In Canada and the United States, the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22 and 24 feet (1.8, 2.4, 3.0, 3.7, 4.3, 4.9, 5.5, 6.1, 6.7 and 7.3 m). For wall framing, precut "stud" lengths are available, and are commonly used. For ceilings heights of 8, 9 or 10 feet (2.4, 2.7 or 3.0 m), studs are available in 92 + 5 ⁄ 8 inches (2.35 m), 104 + 5 ⁄ 8 inches (2.66 m), and 116 + 5 ⁄ 8 inches (2.96 m). The length of

4094-509: The United States began with the publication of the American Lumber Standard in 1924, which set specifications for lumber dimensions, grade, and moisture content; it also developed inspection and accreditation programs. These standards have changed over the years to meet the changing needs of manufacturers and distributors, with the goal of keeping lumber competitive with other construction products. Current standards are set by

4183-400: The abandoned floodplain may be preserved as fluvial terraces . Floodplains support diverse and productive ecosystems . They are characterized by considerable variability in space and time, which in turn produces some of the most species-rich of ecosystems. From the ecological perspective, the most distinctive aspect of floodplains is the flood pulse associated with annual floods, and so

4272-422: The actual standard dimensions of finished lumber. Historically, the nominal dimensions were the size of the green (not dried), rough (unfinished) boards that eventually became smaller finished lumber through drying and planing (to smooth the wood). Today, the standards specify the final finished dimensions and the mill cuts the logs to whatever size it needs to achieve those final dimensions. Typically, that rough cut

4361-511: The advantages provided by the richness of the alluvial soil of the floodplain are severely offset by frequent floods brought on by cyclones and annual monsoon rains. These extreme weather events cause severe economic disruption and loss of human life in the densely-populated region. Floodplain soil composition is unique and varies widely based on microtopography. Floodplain forests have high topographic heterogeneity which creates variation in localized hydrologic conditions. Soil moisture within

4450-428: The banks of a river channel to the base of the enclosing valley, and experience flooding during periods of high discharge . The soils usually consist of clays, silts , sands, and gravels deposited during floods. Because of regular flooding, floodplains frequently have high soil-fertility since nutrients are deposited with the flood waters. This can encourage farming ; some important agricultural regions, such as

4539-481: The bridge are directed onto Upper Main Street, County Route 133A, opposite the intersection with St. Joseph's Seminary Road. After it turns just prior to reaching the railroad tracks, a short spur goes over a grade crossing to Route 133, from which the Bridge Street intersection is a short distance to the north. On southbound 97, a sign directs Pennsylvania-bound drivers to bear off the road at Fremont Street,

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4628-515: The direction of the meander without changing significantly in width. The point bar is built up to a level very close to that of the river banks. Significant net erosion of sediments occurs only when the meander cuts into higher ground. The overall effect is that, as the river meanders, it creates a level flood plain composed mostly of point bar deposits. The rate at which the channel shifts varies greatly, with reported rates ranging from too slow to measure to as much as 2,400 feet (730 m) per year for

4717-448: The floodplain ecosystem is defined as the part of the river valley that is regularly flooded and dried. Floods bring in detrital material rich in nutrients and release nutrients from dry soil as it is flooded. The decomposition of terrestrial plants submerged by the floodwaters adds to the nutrient supply. The flooded littoral zone of the river (the zone closest to the river bank) provides an ideal environment for many aquatic species, so

4806-462: The floodplain has a big impact on phosphorus availability because it alters water level, redox state, pH, and physical properties of minerals. Dry soils that were previously inundated have reduced availability of phosphorus and increased affinity for obtaining phosphorus. Human floodplain alterations also impact the phosphorus cycle. Particulate phosphorus and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP) can contribute to algal blooms and toxicity in waterways when

4895-599: The floodplain. Other smaller-scale mitigation efforts include acquiring and demolishing flood-prone buildings or flood-proofing them. In some floodplains, such as the Inner Niger Delta of Mali , annual flooding events are a natural part of the local ecology and rural economy , allowing for the raising of crops through recessional agriculture . However, in Bangladesh , which occupies the Ganges Delta ,

4984-404: The flowing water erodes the river bank on the outside of the meander. At the same time, sediments are simultaneously deposited in a bar on the inside of the meander. This is described as lateral accretion since the deposition builds the point bar laterally into the river channel. Erosion on the outside of the meander usually closely balances deposition on the inside so that the channel shifts in

5073-398: The human-caused disconnect between floodplains and rivers exacerbates the phosphorus overload. Floodplain soils tend to be high in eco-pollutants, especially persistent organic pollutant (POP) deposition. Proper understanding of the distribution of soil contaminants is difficult because of high variation in microtopography and soil texture within floodplains. Lumber Lumber

5162-465: The impact of floodwaters. The disturbance by humans of temperate floodplain ecosystems frustrates attempts to understand their natural behavior. Tropical rivers are less impacted by humans and provide models for temperate floodplain ecosystems, which are thought to share many of their ecological attributes. Excluding famines and epidemics , some of the worst natural disasters in history (measured by fatalities) have been river floods, particularly in

5251-617: The makeup towards ash (49%) with maple increasing to 14% and oak decreasing to 25%. Semiarid floodplains have a much lower species diversity. Species are adapted to alternating drought and flood. Extreme drying can destroy the ability of the floodplain ecosystem to shift to a healthy wet phase when flooded. Floodplain forests constituted 1% of the landscape of Europe in the 1800s. Much of this has been cleared by human activity, though floodplain forests have been impacted less than other kinds of forests. This makes them important refugia for biodiversity. Human destruction of floodplain ecosystems

5340-509: The markets of Philadelphia . The journey usually took a week: one particularly daring rafter, Elias Mitchell, made the trip in a mere two days by traveling nonstop. Later, mills were established at Phillipsburg, New Jersey and Easton, Pennsylvania , requiring a shorter trip. In the mid-19th century, the river was supplemented as Callicoon's connection to the wider world by the New York and Erie Railroad 's Delaware Division, which established

5429-543: The modern era; a 1st class timber during the Sui was reconstructed as 15×10 (Sui dynasty inches, or 29.4 mm). Defects occurring in lumber are grouped into the following four divisions: During the process of converting timber to commercial forms of lumber the following defects may occur: Fungi attack wood (both timber and lumber) when these conditions are all present: Wood with less than 25% moisture (dry weight basis) can remain free of decay for centuries. Similarly, wood submerged in water may not be attacked by fungi if

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5518-528: The next crossing downstream. Callicoon and River form a three-way intersection just south of the Callicoon Bridge; the roadway on the Pennsylvania side is designated as unsigned SR 1020. First settled by Europeans in the 1750s, Callicoon first grew as a lumbering community a decade later. At that time the loggers strapped their product to wooden rafts and floated them downriver all the way to

5607-762: The nitrogen-to-phosphorus ratios are altered farther upstream. In areas where the phosphorus load is primarily particulate phosphorus, like the Mississippi River, the most effective ways of removing phosphorus upstream are sedimentation, soil accretion, and burial. In basins where SRP is the primary form of phosphorus, biological uptake in floodplain forests is the best way of removing nutrients. Phosphorus can transform between SRP and particulate phosphorus depending on ambient conditions or processes like decomposition, biological uptake, redoximorphic release, and sedimentation and accretion. In either phosphorus form, floodplain forests are beneficial as phosphorus sinks, and

5696-486: The north end of Route 133, which they then follow to the spur over the grade crossing. Access is much simpler from the Pennsylvania side, as the community there is smaller. Vehicles follow either Callicoon Road from the north or River Road from the south, both part of unsigned State Route 1016 which makes a long loop from State Route 191 to the northwest and State Route 371 at the Cochecton–Damascus Bridge ,

5785-467: The old one. It remained open while the current structure was constructed, slightly downstream, by the Binghamton Bridge and Foundation Company starting in 1961. The new bridge opened with a formal dedication on August 1, 1962. The old bridge was dismantled. Flood plain A floodplain or flood plain or bottomlands is an area of land adjacent to a river . Floodplains stretch from

5874-444: The one before. This method produces the widest possible boards with the least amount of log waste. Lumber manufacturing globally is determined by the preferred style of building; areas with a "wood building culture" (homes were built from wood rather than other materials like brick) are the countries with significant sawmilling industries. Historical wood-frame home building regions are: Europe, North America, Japan. Different areas of

5963-442: The overbank flow. Most of the suspended sand is deposited on the levees, leaving the silt and clay sediments to be deposited as floodplain mud further from the river. Levees are typically built up enough to be relatively well-drained compared with nearby wetlands, and levees in non-arid climates are often heavily vegetated. Crevasses are formed by breakout events from the main river channel. The river bank fails, and floodwaters scour

6052-505: The quality of lumber at different levels and are based on moisture content, size, and manufacture at the time of grading, shipping, and unloading by the buyer. The National Lumber Grades Authority (NLGA) is responsible for writing, interpreting and maintaining Canadian lumber grading rules and standards. The Canadian Lumber Standards Accreditation Board (CLSAB) monitors the quality of Canada's lumber grading and identification system. Their common grade abbrievation, CLS, Canadian Lumber Standard

6141-441: The river, and a paper mill flourished until it burned down in 1879. The residents soon grew frustrated with having to travel downriver to Cochecton to cross. In 1886 a group of citizens met to organize a bridge-building company. Shares in the newly established Callicoon Bridge Company were priced at $ 25 ($ 1000 in modern dollars) and were purchased eagerly. While sentiment was heavily in favor of erecting one, enthusiasm dimmed as it

6230-511: The river, the successive plant communities are bank vegetation (usually annuals); sedge and reeds; willow shrubs; willow-poplar forest; oak-ash forest; and broadleaf forest. Human disturbance creates wet meadows that replace much of the original ecosystem. The biozones reflect a soil moisture and oxygen gradient that in turn corresponds to a flooding frequency gradient. The primeval floodplain forests of Europe were dominated by oak (60%) elm (20%) and hornbeam (13%), but human disturbance has shifted

6319-475: The roads facing the river, along with one church; there is no commercial development. Traffic going into Pennsylvania from New York usually comes from two nearby state highways— Route 97 , which parallels the Upper Delaware for its entire length, and Route 17B , which terminates at its intersection with Route 97 on the southeast corner of the hamlet after following the creek on its way from Monticello ,

6408-525: The rules of the Sciages Avivés Tropicaux Africains (SATA) and is based on clear cuttings – established by the percentage of the clear surface. In North America, market practices for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods varies significantly from the regularized standardized ' dimension lumber ' sizes used for sales and specification of softwoods – hardwood boards are often sold totally rough cut, or machine planed only on

6497-484: The sparsely populated regions of the states the Upper Delaware divides; as it is not along a major through route between them, the bridge carries on average 1,322 vehicles a day. The New York approach goes through the unincorporated hamlet of Callicoon , part of the town of Delaware which has a small built-up downtown with many historic buildings. In Pennsylvania several homes in Damascus Township line

6586-408: The spawning season for fish often coincides with the onset of flooding. Fish must grow quickly during the flood to survive the subsequent drop in water level. As the floodwaters recede, the littoral experiences blooms of microorganisms, while the banks of the river dry out and terrestrial plants germinate to stabilize the bank. The biota of floodplains has high annual growth and mortality rates, which

6675-459: The surrounding grade. Many State and local governments have, in addition, adopted floodplain construction regulations which are more restrictive than those mandated by the NFIP. The US government also sponsors flood hazard mitigation efforts to reduce flood impacts. California 's Hazard Mitigation Program is one funding source for mitigation projects. A number of whole towns such as English, Indiana , have been completely relocated to remove them from

6764-459: The term timber is used in both senses. (In the UK, the word lumber is rarely used in relation to wood and has several other meanings.) Re-manufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it refers to lumber cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by

6853-480: The timber (cedar and yew) was shipped to Portugal and Spain. About 1427, the first sawmill in Germany was built. Cornelis Corneliszoon (or Krelis Lootjes) was a Dutch windmill owner from Uitgeest who invented the first mechanical sawmill, which was wind-powered, on 15 December 1593. This made the conversion of log timber into planks 30 times faster than previously. The circular saw, as used in modern sawmills,

6942-405: The trunks of trees were split with wedges into as many and as thin pieces as possible. If it was necessary to have them still thinner, they were hewn, by some sharp instrument, on both sides, to the proper size. This simple but wasteful manner of making boards is still continued in some places. Otherwise, logs were sawn using a two-person whipsaw, or pit-saw, using saddleblocks to hold the log, and

7031-453: The two (broader) face sides. When hardwood boards are also supplied with planed faces, it is usually both by random widths of a specified thickness (normally matching milling of softwood dimensional lumber) and somewhat random lengths. But besides those older (traditional and normal) situations, in recent years some product lines have been widened to also market boards in standard stock sizes; these usually retail in big-box stores and using only

7120-672: The upper 30 cm of the soil profile also varies widely based on microtopography which affects oxygen availability. Floodplain soil stays aerated for long stretches of time in between flooding events, but during flooding, saturated soil can become oxygen-depleted if it stands stagnant for long enough. More soil oxygen is available at higher elevations farther from the river. Floodplain forests generally experience alternating periods of aerobic and anaerobic soil microbe activity which affects fine root development and desiccation. Floodplains have high buffering capacity for phosphorus to prevent nutrient loss to river outputs. Phosphorus nutrient loading

7209-459: The value of the wood for furniture. Engineered lumber is lumber created by a manufacturer and designed for a certain structural purpose. The main categories of engineered lumber are: In the United States, pilings are mainly cut from southern yellow pines and Douglas-fir . Treated pilings are available in chromated copper arsenate retentions of 0.60, 0.80 and 2.50 pounds per cubic foot (9.6, 12.8 and 40.0 kg/m ) if treatment

7298-536: The world (mainly the United States and Canada) the term timber refers specifically to unprocessed wood fiber , such as cut logs or standing trees that have yet to be cut. Lumber may be supplied either rough- sawn , or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making, and manufacture of other items requiring cutting and shaping. It is available in many species, including hardwoods and softwoods , such as white pine and red pine , because of their low cost. Finished lumber

7387-417: The world are recognized as significant timber suppliers; however, these areas (Indonesia, Sarawak, New Guinea, etc.) are exporters of raw logs and do not have a significant domestic lumber producing industry. The largest lumber manufacturing regions in the world are: China (18%); United States (17%); Canada (10%); Russia (9%); Germany (5%); Sweden (4%). In early periods of society, to make wood for building,

7476-525: Was 13 ⁄ 16  in (21 mm). In 1928, that was reduced by 4%, and yet again by 4% in 1956. In 1961, at a meeting in Scottsdale, Arizona, the Committee on Grade Simplification and Standardization agreed to what is now the current U.S. standard: in part, the dressed size of a 1-inch (nominal) board was fixed at 3 ⁄ 4  inch; while the dressed size of 2 inch (nominal) lumber

7565-516: Was reduced from 1 + 5 ⁄ 8  inch to the current 1 + 1 ⁄ 2  inch. Dimensional lumber is available in green, unfinished state, and for that kind of lumber, the nominal dimensions are the actual dimensions. Individual pieces of lumber exhibit a wide range in quality and appearance with respect to knots, slope of grain, shakes and other natural characteristics. Therefore, they vary considerably in strength, utility, and value. The move to set national standards for lumber in

7654-693: Was built at the Falls of Piscatauqua , on the line between the Province of Maine and the Province of New Hampshire , in 1634. Unauthenticated records, however, claim that as early as 1633 several mills were operating in New Netherland . The American colonies were essential to England in the role of supplier of lumber for the British fleet. By the 1790s, New England was exporting 36 million feet of pine boards and at least 300 ship masts per year to

7743-429: Was hired to build a truss bridge . It cost $ 23,180 and opened early in 1899. After being open for free on its first day, it became a toll bridge to recoup the construction costs. No major maintenance was necessary save raising it slightly after a heavy storm in 1904. In 1923 the company sold the bridge to the states of New York and Pennsylvania for $ 35,000, who placed it under their joint commission's control. It became

7832-541: Was invented by an Englishman named Miller in 1777. It was not until the nineteenth century, however, that it was generally applied, and its great work belongs to that period. The first insertable teeth for this saw were invented by W. Kendal, an American, in 1826. Logging in the American colonies began in 1607 when the Jamestown settlers cut timber to build the first settlement in the new world. America's first sawmill

7921-551: Was realized what that would entail—buying land for the approaches on both sides, getting both New York and Pennsylvania to approve the project, selecting a design and hiring a contractor to build the bridge. Getting all those things done took another decade; the process was expedited when the owner of the land on the Pennsylvania side donated it to the company. In the late 1890s the Horseheads Bridge Company, which later built Dingman's Ferry Bridge downriver,

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