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52-489: Puncak Jaya ( Indonesian: [ˈpuntʃak ˈdʒaja] ; literally "Glorious Peak", Amungme : Nemangkawi Ninggok ) or Carstensz Pyramid ( / ˈ k ɑːr s t ən s / , Indonesian : Piramida Carstensz , Dutch : Carstenszpiramide ) on the island of New Guinea , with an elevation of 4,884 m (16,024 ft), is the highest mountain peak of an island on Earth, and the highest peak in Indonesia. The mountain

104-692: A heading of 80° (slightly north of due east, at the Amsterdam transform fault to the south western side of Australian plate), 7 cm (2.8 in) per year with heading 120° (southeast) and 6.6 cm (2.6 in) per year near the Macquarie triple junction which is the south eastern side of the Australian plate. The Capricorn plate at the western side of the Australian plate is moving at 1.9 mm (0.075 in) per year ± 0.5 mm (0.020 in) per year with heading 45° (northwest) relative to

156-726: A bend up towards the north-east via the transform faults of the Hunter Fracture Zone to Fiji . The Australian plate interacts at the southern and south-eastern border of the North Fiji Basin with the microplates of the New Hebrides already mentioned, as well as with the Conway Reef plate and the Balmoral Reef plates . To the west of Fiji the Australian plate interacts in the spreading centre of

208-557: A proto-Australian continent approximately 1,696  million years ago (Dawson et al. 2002). Australia and East Antarctica were merged with Gondwana between 570 and 530  million years ago starting in the Ediacaran (South African Kuunga Orogeny ). As a separate plate, the Australian plate came into being on the breakup of Gondwana with final separation from what is now the Antarctic plate and Zealandia starting in

260-554: A while after this, some believing as recently as 45  million years ago , but most accepting presently that this had occurred by 60  million years ago . The Australian plate later fused with the adjacent Indian plate beneath the Indian Ocean to form a single Indo-Australian plate . However, recent studies suggest that the two plates have once again split apart and have been separate plates for at least 3 million years and likely longer. The Australian plate includes

312-527: Is four kilometres ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 miles) west of Puncak Jaya. Other summits are East Carstensz Peak (4,808 m [15,774 ft]), Sumantri (4,870 m [15,980 ft]) and Ngga Pulu (4,863 m [15,955 ft]). Other names include Nemangkawi in the Amungkal language, Carstensz Toppen and Gunung Soekarno . It is also the highest point between the Himalayas and

364-548: Is a complex but generally convergent boundary with the Pacific plate . The Pacific plate is subducting under the Australian plate, which forms the Tonga and Kermadec Trenches , and the parallel Tonga and Kermadec island arcs . It has also uplifted the eastern parts of New Zealand's North Island . The continent of Zealandia , which separated from Australia 85  million years ago and stretches from New Caledonia in

416-635: Is about half that of the collision with the Sunda plate, but this would not explain some of the largest and most destructive recent earthquakes and eruptions on the face of the planet. There is oblique convergence of what are now the Pacific and Australian plates at about 11 cm/year (4.3 in/year) near eastern Papua New Guinea. This has resulted in shear complexities, resolved by the formation of multiple microplates and convergence velocity that varies between 2–48 cm/year (0.79–18.90 in/year) where

468-651: Is located in the Sudirman Range of the highlands of Mimika Regency , Central Papua , Indonesia. Puncak Jaya is ranked 5th in the world by topographic isolation . When regarding New Guinea as part of the Australian continent in a biogeographical sense, Puncak Jaya can be considered the highest peak in all of Oceania , with its elevation exceeding those of the highest peaks in the nearby nations of Papua New Guinea ( Mount Wilhelm ), New Zealand ( Aoraki / Mount Cook ) and Australia ( Mount Kosciuszko ). Puncak Jaya

520-471: Is possible through various adventure tourism agencies. Despite being among the lowest of the Seven Summits, Puncak Jaya is considered to be a technically difficult climb, requiring extensive planning, acclimatisation, mountaineering skills, and support services, due to its remoteness and sheer limestone faces. Located in an isolated area of central Papua, there are no nearby facilities, and climbers have

572-699: Is the Macquarie Ridge . The southerly side is a divergent boundary with the Antarctic plate called the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR). The subducting boundary through Indonesia is not parallel to the biogeographical Wallace line that separates the indigenous fauna of Asia from that of Australasia . The eastern islands of Indonesia lie mainly on the Eurasian plate , but have Australasian-related fauna and flora. Southeasterly lies

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624-626: Is therefore often listed as one of the Seven Summits . However, since Puncak Jaya is in Western New Guinea , an area administered by Indonesia and therefore geopolitically part of Southeast Asia , the peak can also be considered the 8th highest mountain in this region, after Hkakabo Razi and six others in Kachin State , Myanmar. The massive, open cut Grasberg gold and copper mine, the world's second-largest gold mine ,

676-641: Is weaker tectonically than the area where originally the Indian and Australian plates merged which is believed to have been further to the north west. There is also deformation in an approximately 1,200 km (750 mi) zone north of the Southeast Indian Ridge between the Australian plate and the proposed Capricorn plate . It is known that the Eastern Pilbara Craton within present day Western Australia , contains some of

728-602: The Andes . The name of the mountain in the indigenous Amungme peoples' language is Nemangkawi Ninggok meaning Peak of the White Arrow. The name Puncak Jaya is Indonesian for 'Glorious Peak'. It is also known as the Carstensz Pyramid, Mount Jayawijaya, or Mount Carstensz. The highlands surrounding the peak were inhabited before European contact, and the peak is known as Nemangkawi in Amungkal . Puncak Jaya

780-546: The Australian and Pacific plates, and is made of middle Miocene limestones . While Puncak Jaya's peak is free of ice, there are several glaciers on its slopes, including the Carstensz Glacier , West Northwall Firn , East Northwall Firn and the recently vanished Meren Glacier in the Meren Valley ( meren is Dutch for "lakes"). Being equatorial, there is little variation in the mean temperature during

832-560: The Early Cretaceous between about 132  million years ago and finishing in the Cenomanian at about 96  million years ago . The separation continued with various authors modelling full separation time based on sea levels and/or biological separation. A currently widely used reference model for plate movement has total separation of Tasmania by 60 million years ago although some had argued historically that this

884-698: The Lau Basin with the Niuafo'ou plate and the clockwise rotating Tonga plate under which the Pacific plate is subducting in the Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone . The back arc spreading in the Lau Basin continues almost due south in the line of interaction between the Australian and Tonga plates to the Kermadec plate and on to New Zealand where direct interaction resumes with the Pacific plate south of

936-590: The Maoke Mountains disappeared completely some time between 1939 and 1962. Since the 1970s, evidence from satellite imagery indicates the Puncak Jaya glaciers have been retreating rapidly. The Meren Glacier melted away sometime between 1994 and 2000. An expedition led by paleoclimatologist Lonnie Thompson in 2010 found that the glaciers are disappearing at a rate of seven metres (23 ft) thickness per year and in 2018 they were predicted to vanish in

988-592: The New Hebrides plate . As we go south the convergence rate falls from 17 cm/year (6.7 in/year) north of the Torres Islands to 4 cm/year (1.6 in/year) in the central section of the trench, to rise again to 12 cm/year (4.7 in/year) in the south. Very active spreading then resumes in the North Fiji Basin where the edge of the Australian plate makes a transition in

1040-832: The Solomon Sea plate subducts under the South Bismarck plate and Pacific plate at the New Britain subduction zone . To the south of this there is sea floor spreading between the Australian plate and the Woodlark plate in the Woodlark Basin while the subduction of the oceanic crust of the Australian plate occurs to the south east in the New Hebrides Trench of the Vanuatu subduction zone under

1092-496: The Sunda Shelf . To the east of Indonesia there appears to be under the Indian Ocean a deformation zone between the Indian and Australian plates with both earthquake and global satellite navigation system data indicating that India and Australia are not moving on the same vectors northward and have started a process of again separating. This zone is along the northern Ninety East Ridge which implies this area presently

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1144-532: The Sunda plate (Sundaland plate, previously classified as part of Eurasian plate ) has a maximum convergence velocity of 7.3 cm (2.9 in) per year ± 0.8 cm (0.31 in) per year at the Java Trench decreasing to 6.0 cm (2.4 in) ± 0.04 cm (0.016 in) per year at the southern Sumatra Trench . The eastern collision with the Pacific plate has increasing displacement rates towards

1196-600: The Taupō Volcanic Zone and such direct interaction continues into the Macquarie Fault Zone to the south of New Zealand. There is up to 9.6 cm (3.8 in) per year motion accommodated with complex rotational components in the collision dynamics between the north eastern Australian plate and the rotating Tonga plate , the long thin Kermadec plate and the south western aspects of the Pacific plate. The Pacific plate east to west convergence rates along

1248-415: The 2020s. Puncak Jaya is one of the more demanding climbs in one version of the Seven Summits , despite having the lowest elevation. It is held to have the highest technical rating, though not the greatest physical demands of that list's ascents. The standard route to climb the peak from its base camp is up the north face and along the summit ridge, which is all hard rock surface. Despite the large mine ,

1300-489: The Amungme people are animistic . The Amungme people did not have the idea of "gods" that are separate from nature where spirits and nature are the same. They see themselves as the eldest child of God Nagawan Into , hence conqueror and ruler of the world Amungsa . They practice shifting agriculture , supplementing their livelihood by hunting and gathering . The Amungme are very tied to their ancestral land and consider

1352-468: The Australian plate that the latest tectonic models suggest is still independent from when it first achieved independent rotation to the then Indo-Australian plate several million years ago, the Macquarie microplate. Data from the 11,800 km (7,300 mi) long Southeast Indian Ridge only became available after about 1985 and this gives a fairly consistent spreading rate between the Antarctic and Australian plates of 6 cm (2.4 in) per year at

1404-493: The Austrian mountaineer Heinrich Harrer , New Zealand mountaineer Philip Temple , Australian rock climber Russell Kippax, and Dutch patrol officer Albertus (Bert) Huizenga. Temple had previously led an expedition into the area and pioneered the access route to the mountains. When Indonesia took control of the province in 1963, the peak was renamed Poentja' Soekarno (Simplified Indonesian : Puncak Sukarno) or Sukarno Peak, after

1456-707: The Freeport mining company in Timika . In the last 35 years, the Amungme have seen their sacred mountain destroyed by the Freeport mine and watched as their relatives are killed and caught in the conflict between Indonesian soldiers and Free Papua Movement rebels, while the Kamoro have more than 200,000 tons of mining waste pumped into their rivers each day. All these factors have created complex social and political stresses and led to somewhat frequent protests and/or social conflicts, some of which have been violently suppressed by

1508-785: The Indonesian police or military. This Indonesia -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about an ethnic group in Asia is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Australian Plate The Australian plate is a major tectonic plate in the eastern and, largely, southern hemispheres. Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana , Australia remained connected to India and Antarctica until approximately 100  million years ago when India broke away and began moving north. Australia and Antarctica had begun rifting by 96  million years ago and completely separated

1560-471: The approach probably the "most miserable" of the Seven Summits. Rain during most days of the hike inbound and out are not uncommon. Unlike the other Seven Summits, if one sustains an injury on the inbound hike, there is little or no ability to get rescued via helicopter. Anyone injured must evacuate by foot over very difficult and slippery terrain. The descent from the peak's base camp can take three to four days. Anecdotally, it appears most injuries occur during

1612-510: The area is highly inaccessible to hikers and the general public. The standard route to access base camp as of 2013 is to fly into the nearest major town with an airport, Timika , and then take a small aircraft over the mountain range and onto an unimproved runway at one of the local villages far down from the peak. It is then typically a five-day hike via the Jungle route to the base camp through very dense rainforest and with regular rainfall, making

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1664-437: The bare Carstensz Pyramid. Because of extensive snow melt, Ngga Pulu has become a 4,862 m (15,951 ft) subsidiary peak, but it has been estimated that in 1936 (when glaciers still covered 13 km (5.0 sq mi) of the mountain; see map) Ngga Pulu was indeed the highest summit, reaching over 4,900 m (16,100 ft). The now-highest Carstensz Pyramid summit was not climbed until 1962, by an expedition led by

1716-571: The continent of Australia , including Tasmania , as well as portions of New Guinea , New Zealand and the Indian Ocean basin. The continental crust of this plate covers the whole of Australia, the Gulf of Carpentaria , southern New Guinea , the Arafura Sea , the Coral Sea . The continental crust also includes northwestern New Zealand , New Caledonia and Fiji . The oceanic crust includes

1768-510: The descent due to a combination of exhaustion and difficulty controlling hiking speed on the wet and slippery terrain. An additional complication is relatively common work strikes by the climbing porters that accompany most expeditions, occasionally halting their work to demand (and usually receive) higher pay before agreeing to continue. The one-day summit bid is technically challenging for those with little rock climbing experience, and it can be quite cold with temperatures at or below freezing near

1820-402: The middle of India and Australia landmasses, with Australia as the point of reference, presently Australia is moving northward at 3 cm (1.2 in) per year with respect to India consistent with a zone of deformation between the two plates as commented upon earlier. This zone of deformation may actually presently involve some of India. The northwards collision of the Australian plate with

1872-405: The north from a low of less than 0.2 cm (0.079 in) per year at the southern end of the Macquarie Fault Zone , where there is the major plate triple junction with the Pacific and Antarctic plates . Due to vector complexities at the north eastern end of this collision, which includes several spreading centres, it is perhaps simplest to state that the average displacement rate to the north

1924-529: The north to New Zealand's subantarctic islands in the south, is now being torn apart along the transform boundary marked by the Alpine Fault . South of New Zealand the boundary becomes a transitional transform-convergent boundary, the Macquarie Fault Zone , where the Australian plate is beginning to subduct under the Pacific plate along the Puysegur Trench . Extending southwest of this trench

1976-709: The oldest surface rocks on earth being pristine crust up to 3.8 billion years ago. Accordingly, the Pilbara Craton continues to be studied for clues as to the commencement and subsequent course of plate tectonics . Depositional age of the Mount Barren Group on the southern margin of the Yilgarn Craton and zircon provenance analysis support the hypothesis that collisions between the Pilbara – Yilgarn and Yilgarn – Gawler Cratons assembled

2028-433: The option to take a helicopter to the base camp and reach the summit within three to four days, or spend an additional four to five days to trek to base camp from the nearest town, Sugapa. In 2016, Erik Airlangga died of hypothermia while attempting the peak after getting caught in extreme weather. In 2017, Ahmad Hadi died of hypoxemia while climbing the peak. In the 2024 climbing season, two climbers died while attempting

2080-414: The region's largest single employer. Extensive gold and copper mining have altered the landscape, and the presence of the mine and its infrastructure has attracted numerous other economic migrants from regions in Indonesia including other Papuans, some of whom have tried to settle on traditional Amungme lands. This has caused a land dispute regarding customary land rights between the Amungme people against

2132-638: The south starts subducting under the Pacific plate at a rate of 3.6 cm/year (1.4 in/year) at the Puysegur Trench , which ends in the south as a long series of transform faults between the two plates called the Macquarie Ridge Complex, commencing with the McDougall Fault Zone and ending with the Macquarie Fault Zone. The south western portion of the zone has the Pacific plate interacting with an area of

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2184-747: The southeast Indian Ocean , the Tasman Sea , and the Timor Sea . The Australian plate is bordered (clockwise) by the Eurasian plate , the Philippine plate , the Pacific plate , the Antarctic plate , the African plate and the Indian plate . It is however known from movement studies that this definition of the Australian plate is 20% less accurate than one that assumes independently moving Capricorn , and Macquarie microplates. The northeasterly side

2236-522: The subduction systems with the Kermadec plate, which are perhaps simpler to state, are among the fastest on Earth, being 8 cm (3.1 in) per year in the north and 4.5 cm (1.8 in) per year in the south. At the central Alpine Fault in New Zealand the subduction component of the Pacific plate moving westward is about 3.9 cm (1.5 in) per year. The Australian plate then to

2288-593: The summit. Patches of snow sometimes appear on the route up or on the ropes of the Tyrolean traverse just below the summit. In 1936, the Dutch Carstensz expedition , unable to establish definitively which of the three summits was the highest, attempted to climb each. Anton Colijn , Jean Jacques Dozy , and Frits Wissel reached both the glacier-covered East Carstensz and Ngga Pulu summits on December 5, but, due to bad weather, failed in their attempts to climb

2340-450: The summit. The first died of a suspected heart attack on 29 September. The second climber, Chinese mountaineer Dong Fei died of a fall while on the descent. Amung people Their language is called Amung -kal spoken mostly in the southern regions. In the north, it is called Damal-kal. Additionally, they have symbolic languages called Aro-a-kal and Tebo-a-kal. Tebo-a-kal is only spoken in sacred areas. The traditional beliefs of

2392-454: The surrounding mountains to be sacred. This has led to friction with the Indonesian government and Freeport-McMoRan , which is eager to exploit the vast mineral deposits contained there. Major changes in the Amungme of the highlands and Kamoro of the lowlands lifestyle have been brought about by the Grasberg mine , situated in the heart of Amungme territory and owned by Freeport-McMoRan ,

2444-419: The then- President of Indonesia Sukarno ; later this was changed to Puncak Jaya due to the subsequent de-Sukarnoization . Puncak means peak or mountain and Jaya means 'victory', 'victorious', or 'glorious'. The name Carstensz Pyramid is still used among mountaineers . Access to the peak requires a government permit. The mountain was closed to tourists and climbers between 1995 and 2005. As of 2006, access

2496-451: The work involved in determining these plate vectors involves assurance that the points of reference are representative of the plates they are on, as distortion will be likely in areas of tectonic activity. Further assumptions such as there are only 8 plates were made in earlier modelling when as many as 52 may exist, with independent movement, although fair accuracy for larger plate movement can be obtained if only 25 are modelled. In terms of

2548-623: The year (around 0.5 °C [0.90 °F]) and the glaciers fluctuate on a seasonal basis only slightly. However, analysis of the extent of these rare equatorial glaciers from historical records show significant retreat since the 1850s, around the time of the Little Ice Age Maximum which primarily affected the Northern Hemisphere, indicating a regional warming of around 0.6 °C (1.1 °F) per century between 1850 and 1972. The glacier on Puncak Trikora in

2600-440: Was as recent as 45 million years ago. The Australian plate, which Australia is on, is moving faster than other plates. The Australian plate is moving about 6.9 cm (2.7 inches) a year in a northward direction and with a small clockwise rotation. The Global Positioning System must be updated due to the movement, as some locations move faster. Technically movement is a vector and requires to be related to something. Much of

2652-503: Was named "Carstensz Pyramid" after Dutch explorer Jan Carstenszoon , who was the first European to sight the glaciers on the peak of the mountain on a rare clear day in 1623. The sighting went unverified for over two centuries, and Carstensz was ridiculed in Europe when he said he had seen snow near the equator . It appeared on maps of the time as Sneebergh. The snowfield of Puncak Trikora , 170 km (106 mi) east of here,

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2704-778: Was reached as early as 1909 by a Dutch explorer, Hendrik Albert Lorentz with six of his Dayak Kenyah porters recruited from the Apo Kayan in Borneo . The predecessor of the Lorentz National Park , which encompasses the Carstensz Range, was established in 1919 following the report of this expedition. Puncak Jaya is the highest point on the Central Range , which was created in the late Miocene Melanesian orogeny , caused by an oblique collision between

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