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84-421: Chuck Taylor All-Stars or Converse All Stars (also referred to as " Converse ", " Chuck Taylors ", " Chucks ", " Cons ", " All Stars ", and " Chucky Ts ") are sneakers manufactured by American fashion brand Converse (a subsidiary of Nike, Inc. since 2003). Initially developed as a basketball shoe in the early 20th century, its design has remained largely unchanged since its introduction. The shoe consists of

168-426: A majority , "which passively accepted commercially provided styles and meanings, and a 'subculture' which actively sought a minority style ... and interpreted it in accordance with subversive values ". In his 1979 book Subculture: The Meaning of Style , Dick Hebdige argued that a subculture is a subversion to normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as negative due to their nature of criticism to

252-496: A wide variety of other names , are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise but which are also widely used for everyday casual wear . They were popularized by companies such as Converse , Nike and Spalding in the mid 20th century. Like other parts of the global clothing industry, shoe manufacturing is heavily concentrated in Asia with nine in ten shoes produced there. Sneakers have gone by

336-786: A common hobby or interest but lack permanent social bonds to become a brand community . The sexual revolution of the 1960s led to a countercultural rejection of the established sexual and gender norms in the Western world , particularly in the urban areas of Europe, North and South America, Australia, and white South Africa. A more permissive social environment in these areas led to a proliferation of sexual subcultures —cultural expressions of non-normative sexuality . As with other subcultures, sexual subcultures adopted certain styles of fashion and gestures to distinguish themselves from mainstream Western culture. Lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) people express themselves through

420-585: A common-law trademark by importing "knockoff" sneakers with similar elements. The list included shoe brands by major retailers, including Walmart , Skechers , Ed Hardy , Ralph Lauren and Fila . A number of companies settled with Converse and were dropped from the list. In November 2015, Charles Bullock, chief administrative judge at the International Trade Commission, preliminarily ruled that several brands Converse filed against were violating Converse's outsole design trademarks, i.e.

504-609: A distinctive five-pointed-star logo displayed on the high-top shoe's ankle patch. In addition, Taylor's signature was incorporated into the high-top's ankle patch, resulting in the design that became known as the Chuck Taylor All Star. In 1949, Converse made a black-and-white version of the All Star. In 1957, it introduced the low-cut "Oxford"-style version of the shoe, and in time the company began to produce All Stars in multiple colors and prints. Today, Converse makes

588-459: A documentary, Just for Kicks , about the sneaker phenomenon and history was released. Contemporary sneakers are largely made from synthetic materials, and the materials and manufacturing process produce, on average, about 14 kg (31 lb) of CO 2 emissions . Some companies are trying to substitute more sustainable materials in their manufacture. About 90% of shoes end up in landfills at end of life. Subculture A subculture

672-891: A fashion statement by wearing Chuck Taylors as a substitute for high heels at their public appearances. She continued wearing them during her 2024 campaign Chuck Taylor All Star shoes have been worn by actors in feature films that include Jerry Lewis in The Colgate Comedy Hour (early 1950s), Elvis Presley in Change of Habit (1969), Sylvester Stallone in Rocky (1976), several cast members of Animal House (1978), basketball players in Grease (1978), Tom Hanks in Bachelor Party (1984), Michael J. Fox in Back to

756-441: A flexible sole, appropriate tread for the function, and ability to absorb impact. As the industry and designs have expanded, the term "athletic shoes" is based more on the design of the bottom of the shoe than the aesthetics of the top of the shoe. Today's designs include sandals, Mary Janes , and even elevated styles suitable for running, dancing, and jumping. The shoes themselves are made of flexible compounds, typically featuring

840-711: A ladder in a 1958 episode (S1E18) of the MCA TV show Leave It to Beaver . They are also prominent in many Chuck Lorre sitcoms, being the primary sneakers worn by Leonard Hofstadter from The Big Bang Theory and Christy Plunkett from Mom . David Tennant wore the footwear during his tenure as the Tenth Doctor on the BBC sci-fi series Doctor Who . In 2015, Converse released the Converse All-Star Andy Warhol collection, in partnership with

924-486: A monochromatic shoe with a black canvas upper and black rubber soles, an all-white, high-top model with blue and red trim (designed for the 1936 Olympic Games), and an all black leather and rubber shoe. By 1923 the Converse All Star shoe was designed in its present-day form after the company made improvements to the design based on Chuck Taylor 's input. The restyled Converse All Star basketball shoe also had

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1008-622: A person or group based on their culture or subculture. In the United States and the United Kingdom, the concept of subculture has always been the main explanatory tool for sociological and criminological understanding of deviant behavior. In 2013, the Greater Manchester Police in the United Kingdom began to classify attacks on subcultures such as goths , emos , punks , and metalheads as hate crimes, in

1092-691: A sewn-on ankle patch on the high-tops; a two-piece rubber bottom sole versus the three piece sole on the modern All Stars; a heel patch with 3D letters versus a flat one on the modern All Star version. A few months after the release of the Chuck II, several special series were released with different canvas textures such as the Chuck II Knit , the Chuck II Shield Canvas, and the Chuck II Rio Open Knit, to celebrate

1176-433: A short period. Even religious groups can be seen as subcultures. In his research on British punk rock in the late 1970s, Hebdige proposed a controversial proposition at the time: punk portrayed the entire history of post-war working-class youth culture in a "cut" form, blending elements that originally belonged to completely different eras. Some subcultures reject or modify the importance of style, stressing membership through

1260-433: A sole made of dense rubber. While the original design was basic, manufacturers have since tailored athletic shoes for their specific purposes. An example of this is the spiked shoe developed for track running. Some of these shoes are made up to unusually large sizes for athletes with large feet. Sneakers intended for running come in a range of shapes suited to different purposes. Generally, they are divided by running style:

1344-472: A solution. In the work of John Clarke, Stuart Hall , Tony Jefferson, and Brian Roberts of the Birmingham CCCS ( Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies ), subcultures are interpreted as forms of resistance. Society is seen as being divided into two fundamental classes, the working class and the middle class , each with its own class culture, and middle-class culture being dominant. Particularly in

1428-483: A stitched upper portion, and a toe cap and outsole usually made of rubber. Although Chuck Taylors are made of various materials such as leather or suede, the original and most widely known version is made from cotton canvas . The innovative detail of the original shoe was the "loose lining" of soft canvas that was intended to provide flexibility and prevent blisters. Converse started making an early basketball shoe in 1917 and redesigned it in 1922, when Chuck Taylor asked

1512-460: A subcultural model will furnish him/her with growing status within this context but it will often, in tandem, deprive him/her of status in the broader social context outside where a different model prevails. Cohen used the term 'Corner Boys' which were unable to compete with their better secured and prepared peers. These lower-class youths didn't have equal access to resources, resulting in the status of frustration , marginalization , and search for

1596-476: A subgroup." Some subcultures are formed by members with characteristics or preferences that differ from the majority of society, who generally have a preference for body modifications such as tattoos , punctures, and certain forms of plastic surgery. Unlike mainstream social relationships, subcultural communities are characterized by transience, informality, and a lack of typical social kinship relationships. As early as 1950, David Riesman distinguished between

1680-460: A traditional look with increased comfort rapidly achieved wide popularity and by 2010 was displacing sales of leather shoes for adults in a parallel with the post-1950 success of sneakers among children. The shift was especially noticeable in combination with business-casual clothing. From 1970 (five models), to 1998 (285 models), to 2012 (3,371), the number of sport shoe models in the U.S. has grown exponentially. Sneakers intended for sports have

1764-431: A typical example of an "urban tribe". In the context of consumer culture , the notion of consumer tribes indicate ephemeral groups of individuals that often share a common interest and a share a subculture. Unlike traditional tribes that share kinship and language, consumer tribes are elective and ephemeral because they disperse without necessarily building long-term relationships. Consumer tribes often fluctuate around

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1848-443: A valid common law mark for its midsole. On June 23, 2016, the International Trade Commission ruled that Converse's alleged trade dress for the midsole design of a combined toe cap, toe bumper, and stripe was not entitled to trademark protection under the common law and found invalid Converse's federal trademark registration. When first designed in the early decades of the twentieth century, the Converse All Star had three main styles:

1932-629: A variety of names, depending on geography and changing over the decades. The broader category inclusive of sneakers is athletic shoes . The term 'athletic shoes' is typically used for shoes utilized for jogging or road running and indoor sports such as basketball , but tends to exclude shoes for sports played on grass such as association football and rugby football , which are generally known in North America as " cleats " and in British English as "boots" or "studs". The word "sneaker"

2016-449: A way for people with similar backgrounds, lifestyles, professions or hobbies to connect. According to a co-founder and executive creative strategist for RE-UP, as technology becomes a "life force," subcultures become the main bone of contention for brands as networks rise through cultural mash-ups and phenomenons. Where social media is concerned, there seems to be a growing interest among media producers to use subcultures for branding. This

2100-429: A woman, or they are single. In a 2011 study, Brady Robards and Andy Bennett said that online identity expression has been interpreted as exhibiting subcultural qualities. However, they argue it is more in line with neotribalism than with what is often classified as subculture. Social networking websites are quickly becoming the most used form of communication and means to distribute information and news. They offer

2184-421: A world record for the squat in his age class at 465 pounds (211 kg) in a pair of Chuck Taylors. The canvas material allows powerlifters to push their feet to the outside on squats which helps keep their knees out and activates their glutes. The low-top Chuck Taylors provide complete ankle mobility, as the canvas does not cover the ankles. Sneakers Sneakers ( US ) or trainers ( UK ), also known by

2268-717: Is a group of people within a cultural society that differentiates itself from the values of the conservative, standard or dominant culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural, political, and sexual matters. Subcultures are part of society while keeping their specific characteristics intact. Examples of subcultures include BDSM , hippies , hipsters (which include 1940s original parent subculture and nipster ), goths , steampunks , bikers , punks , skinheads , gopnik , hip-hoppers , metalheads , cosplayers , otaku , otherkin , furries , hackers and more. The concept of subcultures

2352-462: Is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney, who was an advertising agent for N. W. Ayer & Son . In 1917, he used the term because the rubber sole made the shoe's wearer stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, when the Boston Journal made reference to "sneakers" as "the name boys give to tennis shoes." The name "sneakers" originally referred to how quiet

2436-408: Is seen most actively on social network sites with user-generated content , such as YouTube . Subcultures can be and have been successfully targeted by firms commercially. A stream of academic research in consumer culture shows the multiple ways in which companies and firms target subcultures with commercial offerings. Discrimination -based harassment and violence are sometimes directed towards

2520-479: The LGBT culture , considered the largest sexual subculture of the 20th and 21st centuries. With the ever-increasing acceptance of homosexuality in the early 21st century , including its expressions in fashion, music, and design, the gay culture can no longer be considered a subculture in many parts of the world, although some aspects of gay culture like leathermen , bears , and chubs are considered subcultures within

2604-838: The NPD Group , one in four pairs of running shoes that were sold in the United States in 2016 were bought from an online retailer . As of 2020 , brands with global popularity include: Sneakers have been an important part of hip hop (primarily Pumas, Nike, and Adidas) and rock 'n roll (Converse, Vans) cultures since the 1970s. Hip hop artists sign million dollar deals with major brands such as Nike, Adidas, or Puma to promote their shoes. Sneaker collectors, called " sneakerheads ", regard sneakers as fashionable items. Sneaker companies encourage this trend by producing rare sneakers in limited numbers, often at very high retail prices. Artistically-modified sneakers can sell for upwards of $ 1000 at exclusive establishments like Saks Fifth Avenue. In 2005,

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2688-498: The Rio Olympics . A year after the release, the Chuck II was considered a commercial failure, with retailers reporting poor sales. In June 2016, Converse launched a new line of sneakers designed by Hiroshi Fujiwara, Tinker Hatfield , and Mark Parker . A high- and low-top range had initial color offerings in blue, red, green, black, and white. A luxe range in patent leather was also planned. These shoes took more liberties with

2772-726: The interwar period , athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the Olympics , helping to popularise them among the general public. In 1936, a French brand, Spring Court, marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole. Adolf "Adi" Dassler began producing his own sports shoes in his mother's wash kitchen in Herzogenaurach , Bavaria , after his return from World War I , and went on to establish one of

2856-583: The 1980s as retro-style casual footwear. Although Chuck Taylor All-Stars are no longer used in professional basketball, they remain popular as casual footwear. Converse has released editions of the shoes in many colors and patterns, as well as updated models that retain the original's appearance while incorporating newer technology. Marquis Mills Converse founded the Converse Rubber Shoe Company in 1908 in Malden, Massachusetts . In 1917

2940-503: The 1990s, shoe companies perfected their fashion and marketing skills. Sports endorsements with famous athletes grew larger, and marketing budgets went through the roof. Sneakers became a fashion statement and were marketed as a definition of identity and personality rather than simply athletic aids. Also during the 1990s, various vendors began producing "walking shoes" for adults using the construction technology of sneakers but visually resembling traditional leather shoes. The combination of

3024-444: The All Star shoes over the intervening three decades. The '70 model featured thicker canvas, a higher rubber midsole and foxing, thicker cushioning, a smaller toe cap, extra material that was stitched on the side wall behind the toe cap for reinforcement, a one-piece rubber bottom sole versus the three piece sole on the modern All Stars, and a black heel patch versus a white one on the modern All Star. On July 28, 2015, Converse released

3108-732: The Andy Warhol Foundation. In honor of Warhol's contributions to visual art, Converse designed the All-Star shoe to commemorate Warhol's subcultural influence. Since 2018, sculptor Michael Leavitt has formatted long-running projects for art students and craftspeople to make a do-it-yourself Converse Chuck Taylor cardboard shoe. Although originally intended for basketball, powerlifting athletes have embraced Chuck Taylors as ideal shoes with flat rubber soles that enforce correct posture on movements such as deadlifts , squats , and bench presses . Seventy-one-year-old Pete Bennett set

3192-484: The Chuck Taylor All Star II. This shoe differed from the standard, modern version of the Chuck Taylor All Star in several ways, including a thicker canvas; a higher rubber midsole and foxing that was similar in size to the All Star '70, but it had lighter weight rubber; a thicker Lunarlon cushioning; a slightly smaller toe cap; two elastic bands at the base of the tongue, to avoid slippage to the sides;

3276-402: The Chuck Taylor All Star in a variety of colors, styles, prints and fabrics. Only the high-cut shoe design features the ankle patch with the All Star logo, but the heel of the shoe's high- and low-cut designs include a glued-on label with an "ALL★STAR" logo. The low-cut shoes also have a tag with the same logo as the heel stitched onto the tongue. In 2013 the logo appearing on the heel and tongue

3360-764: The Chuck Taylor design than the Chuck II, and the metal grommets and rubber toecap were removed. Nike technology included a circular knit upper with a shiny finish, a cushioned foam rubber sole similar to the Air Jordans , a neoprene tongue, and a TPU -fused toecap. Converse has released many special editions of Chuck Taylor All-Stars, including DC Comics , Super Mario , Pink Floyd , AC/DC , Metallica , The Ramones , The Clash , Dr. Seuss , Sailor Jerry , Grateful Dead , Ozzy Osbourne , Jimi Hendrix , Miley Cyrus , Drew Brophy , Nirvana , Bad Meets Evil , Green Day , Gorillaz , Matt and Kim , Black Sabbath ,

3444-573: The Czech footwear company Botas , whose produce was one of the few foreign brands of sneakers available during the Soviet occupation . These shoes acquired the nickname ' plimsoll ' in the 1870s, derived according to Nicholette Jones' book The Plimsoll Sensation , from the colored horizontal band joining the upper to the sole, which resembled the Plimsoll line on a ship's hull. Alternatively, just like

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3528-618: The Future (1985), the cast members of Hoosiers (1986), and Mike Myers and Dana Carvey in Wayne's World (1992). The video dust jacket of Hoosiers also featured the black high-tops. The cast of several popular network television series such as Dennis the Menace (1959–64), M*A*S*H (1972–83), Happy Days (1974–84) and The A-Team (1983–87) have worn Converse All Star shoes. Wally and Beaver are seen wearing Converse as they climb

3612-650: The NBA during the 1979–1980 season, although Micheal Ray Richardson and Mickey Johnson briefly wore leather All Stars with the New Jersey Nets after 1982. Chuck Taylor All Stars regained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, making a shift to casual, retro-style footwear. The athletic shoe evolved into the shoe of choice and a favorite for subcultures , particularly artists and musicians. By 2000 Converse had sold more than 600 million pairs of All Stars during its eighty years of manufacturing them. While Converse dominated

3696-594: The Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, the wearer would get wet. Plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the tennis and croquet courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the surface grip of the shoe were developed, and these were ordered in bulk for the use of the British Army . Athletic shoes were increasingly used for leisure and outdoor activities at

3780-605: The Tribes (1988). In 1996, this book was published in English. According to Maffesoli, neo tribes are microgroups of people who share common interests in urban areas. The members of these relatively small groups tend to have similar worldviews, dress styles and behavioral patterns. Their social interactions are largely informal and emotionally laden, different from late capitalism 's corporate - bourgeoisie cultures, based on dispassionate logic. Maffesoli claims that punks are

3864-465: The U.S. basketball shoe market from the 1920s until the 1970s, it began to struggle in the late 1970s due to competition, poor business decision-making, and lack of sufficient funds. In subsequent years Converse filed for bankruptcy multiple times and fell into further debt. Nike acquired Converse in 2003 for an estimated $ 305 million and continues to market Chuck Taylor All Stars. Converse's manufacturing operations for Chuck Taylor All Stars, as well as

3948-468: The United States and taught the fundamentals of the game. During the 1926–27 season Taylor also served as a player-manager of the company-sponsored basketball team called the Converse All Stars. The Chicago-based touring team was established to promote sales of the company's All Star basketball shoes. Numerous professional basketball players were soon wearing All Stars. Converse All Stars were

4032-504: The United States, down-low is a slang term specifically used within the African-American community to refer to Black men who usually identify as heterosexual but actively seek sexual encounters and relations with other men , practice gay cruising , and frequently adopt a specific hip-hop attire during these activities. They avoid sharing this information even if they have female sexual partner(s), they are married to

4116-899: The Who , and Dungeons & Dragons . Although Chuck Taylor All-Stars had vanished from the professional basketball scene by 1979, they continued to flourish in popular culture and fashion as casual footwear. Chuck Taylors have played a role in several subcultures, which the company has promoted as part of the brand's ongoing cultural popularity. In addition, Chuck Taylor All-Stars have been portrayed in film, art, and music culture, as well as some sports subcultures such as powerlifting and skateboarding. Chuck Taylors are culturally associated with authenticity. They were popularized by James Dean for rebels and outcasts. They were also associated with Andy Warhol , Kurt Cobain , and Karl Lagerfeld . While campaigning with running mate and future President Joe Biden in 2020, then-California senator Kamala Harris made

4200-569: The adoption of an ideology which may be much more resistant to commercial exploitation. The punk subculture 's distinctive (and initially shocking) style of clothing was adopted by mass-market fashion companies once the subculture became a media interest. Dick Hebdige argues that the punk subculture shares the same "radical aesthetic practices" as the Dadaist and Surrealist art movements: Like Duchamp's 'ready mades' - manufactured objects which qualified as art because he chose to call them such,

4284-422: The cheek, ear or lip ... fragments of school uniform (white bri-nylon shirts, school ties) were symbolically defiled (the shirts covered in graffiti, or fake blood; the ties left undone) and juxtaposed against leather drains or shocking pink mohair tops. In 1985, French sociologist Michel Maffesoli coined the term urban tribe or neotribalism . It gained widespread use after the publication of his The Time of

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4368-477: The company designed the forerunner of the modern All Star shoe that it marketed under the name of "Non-Skids". The shoe was composed of a rubber sole and canvas upper and was designed for basketball players. In 1921, Charles "Chuck" Taylor , an American semi-professional basketball player for the Akron Firestone Non-Skids joined Converse as a salesman. Within a year of Taylor's arrival,

4452-547: The company had adopted his ideas for improvements to the shoe's design to enhance its flexibility and ankle support. The restyled shoe also incorporated a distinctive All-Star logo on the circular patch that protected the ankle. After Taylor's signature was added to the ankle patch as his endorsement, they became known as Chuck Taylor All Stars, the first celebrity-endorsed athletic shoe. To promote sales of Converse All Star shoes to basketball players, Taylor held basketball clinics in high school and college gyms and YMCAs all across

4536-425: The company to create a better shoe with more support and flexibility. After Converse added Taylor's signature to the ankle patch they became known as Chuck Taylor All Stars. By the 1960s the company had captured about 70 to 80 percent of the basketball shoe market, but the shoe declined in popularity during the 1970s when basketball players wore competing brands. Chuck Taylor All Stars enjoyed a comeback in popularity in

4620-403: The company's other shoes, was moved from the United States to other countries such as China , India , Vietnam and Indonesia . In October 2014, after years of sending unsuccessful cease and desist letters, Converse filed a lawsuit against 31 companies for allegedly infringing on its sneaker style's bumper toe, striped midsole, and toe cap. The brand argued that these companies were violating

4704-441: The cultural industry and mass media, as Steve Redhead and David Muggleton emphasize. The very idea of a unique, internally homogeneous, dominant culture is explicitly criticized. Thus forms of individual involvement in subcultures are fluid and gradual, differentiated according to each actor's investment, outside clear dichotomies. The ideas of different levels of subcultural capital ( Sarah Thornton ) possessed by each individual, of

4788-521: The culture industry is often capable of re-absorbing the components of such a style and once again transforming them into consumer goods for the mass society . At the same time the mass media , while they participate in building subcultures by broadcasting their images, also weaken subcultures by depriving them of their subversive content or by spreading a socially stigmatized image of them and their members. The most recent interpretations see subcultures as forms of distinction. In an attempt to overcome

4872-536: The dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subculture brings together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and allow them to develop a sense of identity. In 1995, Sarah Thornton , drawing on Pierre Bourdieu , described "subcultural capital" as the cultural knowledge and commodities acquired by members of a subculture, raising their status and helping differentiate themselves from members of other groups. In 2007, Ken Gelder proposed to distinguish subcultures from countercultures based on

4956-468: The first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by Spalding as early as 1907. The market for sneakers grew after World War I , when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism . The U.S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy Converse All Stars sneakers endorsed by basketball player Chuck Taylor . During

5040-555: The gay movement itself. The butch and femme identities or roles among some lesbians also engender their own subculture with stereotypical attire, for instance drag kings . A late 1980s development, the queer movement can be considered a subculture broadly encompassing those that reject normativity in sexual behavior, and who celebrate visibility and activism. The wider movement coincided with growing academic interests in queer studies and queer theory . Aspects of sexual subcultures can vary along other cultural lines. For instance, in

5124-555: The idea of subcultures as forms of deviance or resistance, they describe subcultures as collectivities which, on a cultural level, are sufficiently homogeneous internally and heterogeneous with respect to the outside world to be capable of developing, as Paul Hodkinson points out, consistent distinctiveness, identity, commitment and autonomy. Defined by Sarah Thornton as taste cultures, subcultures are endowed with elastic, porous borders, and are inserted into relationships of interaction and mingling, rather than independence and conflict, with

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5208-1407: The latter term also used in Hiberno-English . Tennis shoes and kicks are other terms used in Australian and North American English . The British English equivalent of sneaker in its modern form is divided into two separate types: predominantly outdoor and fashionable trainers, training shoes or quality 'basketball shoes' and in contrast cheap rubber-soled, low cut and canvas-topped plimsolls , daps , or flats . In Geordie English , sneakers may also be called sandshoes , gym boots , or joggers . Several terms for sneakers exist in South Africa, including gym shoes , sports shoes and takkies . Other names for sneakers includes rubber shoes in Philippine English , track shoes in Singapore English , canvas shoes in Nigerian English , camboo ("camp boot") in Ghana English, and sportex in Greece. In Latvia any sneakers are still called botas after

5292-537: The leading athletic shoe manufacturers, Adidas . He also successfully marketed his shoes to athletes at the 1936 Summer Olympics , which helped cement his good reputation. Business boomed and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes each year before World War II. During the 1950s, leisure opportunities greatly expanded, and children and adolescents began to wear sneakers as school dress codes relaxed. Sneaker sales rose so high, they began to adversely affect

5376-623: The level of immersion in society. Gelder further proposed six key ways in which subcultures can be identified through their: Sociologists Gary Alan Fine and Sherryl Kleinman argued that their 1979 research showed that a subculture is a group that serves to motivate a potential member to adopt the artifacts, behaviors, norms, and values characteristic of the group. Contemporary subcultures typically refer to popular culture, including animation, comics, video games, and popular music. The evolution of subcultural studies has three main steps: The earliest sociological studies on subcultures came from

5460-632: The mainstream culture and developing imaginary solutions for structural problems. However, the Birmingham School believes that the symbolic rejection of mainstream bourgeois lifestyles by subcultures is illusory. As Paul Willis and Dick Hebdige underline, identity and resistance in subcultures are expressed through the development of a distinctive style which, by a re-signification and " bricolage " operation, use cultural goods and services as standardized products to buy and consume , in order to communicate and express one's own conflict. Yet

5544-551: The mainstream culture, proposing different ones in their place—thereby becoming, depending on circumstances, innovators, rebels, or retreatists ( Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin ). Subcultures, however, are not only the result of alternative action strategies but also of labelling processes on the basis of which, as Howard S. Becker explains, society defines them as outsiders. As Cohen clarifies, every subculture's style, consisting of image, demeanour and language becomes its recognition trait. And an individual's progressive adoption of

5628-552: The majority are for heel-toe joggers/runners which are further subdivided into ' neutral ', ' overpronation ' and ' underpronation '. However, most evidence-based comparisons show no reduction in lower-limb running injuries from prescribing different types of shoe for different foot types. The shoes are constructed with a complex structure of "rubber" with plastic/metal stiffeners to restrict foot movement. More advanced runners tend to wear flatter and flexible shoes , which allow them to run more quickly with greater comfort. According to

5712-457: The most unremarkable and inappropriate items - a pin, a plastic clothes peg, a television component, a razor blade, a tampon - could be brought within the province of punk (un)fashion ... Objects borrowed from the most sordid of contexts found a place in punks' ensembles; lavatory chains were draped in graceful arcs across chests in plastic bin liners. Safety pins were taken out of their domestic 'utility' context and worn as gruesome ornaments through

5796-510: The official shoe of the Olympics from 1936 to 1968. During World War II All Stars were the official athletic training shoes of the U.S. armed forces. By the 1950s, Chuck Taylor All Stars had become a standard among high school, collegiate, and professional basketball players. In the 1960s, Converse had captured about 70 to 80 percent of the basketball shoe market, with Converse Chuck Taylor All Stars being worn by ninety percent of professional and college basketball players. Due in large part to

5880-512: The overall organisational culture. In some instances, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed. British youth subcultures had been described as a moral problem that ought to be handled by the guardians of the dominant culture within the post-war consensus . It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style (particularly clothing and music) may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes. Businesses often seek to capitalize on

5964-451: The pattern on the bottom of the sole of the shoe. Judge Bullock further ruled that while Skechers "Twinkle Toes" brands did share similarities to Converse, "Twinkle Toes" were different enough and marketed in a way to not be mistaken for Chuck Taylor All-Stars. Judge Bullock also ruled that most of the shoes sold by Highline United under the Ash brand did not infringe and that Converse did not have

6048-756: The rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole dress shoes . Someone wearing sneakers could "sneak up", while someone wearing standards could not. Earlier, the name "sneaks" had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders (guards) because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore. The term "sneakers" is most commonly used in Northeastern United States , Central and South Florida , Australia, New Zealand, and parts of Canada. However, in Australian , Canadian , and Scottish English , running shoes and runners are synonymous terms used to refer to sneakers, with

6132-460: The sale of its All Stars, the company began to expand and open more factories. Converse began to struggle financially during the 1970s, due to competition and poor business decisions as the shoe lost its popularity among basketball players. Many athletes switched to shoes with leather uppers and harder rubber soles made by Converse as well as its competitors. Tree Rollins was thought to be the last player to regularly wear canvas Converse All Stars in

6216-530: The sales of conventional leather shoes, leading to a fierce advertising war for market share in the late '50s. In the 1970s, jogging for exercise became increasingly popular, and trainers designed specifically for comfort while jogging sold well. Companies also started to target some of their products at the casual fashion market. Soon, shoes were available for football, jogging, basketball, running , etc. Many sports had their relevant shoe, made possible by podiatrist development of athletic shoe technology. During

6300-711: The same way they record abuse against people because of their religion, race, disability, sexual orientation or transgender identity. The decision followed the murder of Sophie Lancaster and beating of her boyfriend in 2007, who were attacked because they were goths. In 2012, human rights activists have denounced the occurrence of emo killings in Iraq , which consisted of between at least 6 and up to 70 teenage boys who were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered in Baghdad and elsewhere in Iraq , due to being targeted because they dressed in

6384-683: The so-called Chicago School , who interpreted them as forms of deviance and delinquency. Starting with what they called Social Disorganization Theory , they claimed that subcultures emerged on one hand because of some population sectors' lack of socialization with the mainstream culture and, on the other, because of their adoption of alternative axiological and normative models. As Robert E. Park , Ernest Burgess , and Louis Wirth suggested, by means of selection and segregation processes, there thus appear in society "natural areas" or "moral regions" where deviant models concentrate and are re-inforced; they do not accept objectives or means of action offered by

6468-564: The subversive allure of subcultures in search of Cool , which remains valuable in the selling of any product. This process of cultural appropriation may often result in the death or evolution of the subculture, as its members adopt new styles that appear alien to mainstream society. Music-based subcultures are particularly vulnerable to this process; what may be considered subcultures at one stage in their histories – such as jazz , goth , punk , hip hop , and rave cultures  – may represent mainstream taste within

6552-474: The supermarket of style ( Ted Polhemus ) and of style surfing (Martina Böse) replace that of the subculture's insiders and outsiders – with the perspective of subcultures supplying resources for the construction of new identities going beyond strong, lasting identifications. The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to clothing , music , hairstyles , jewellery , and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also of

6636-538: The turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated Scott Antarctic expedition of 1911. Plimsolls were commonly worn by pupils in schools' physical education lessons in the UK from the 1950s until the early 1970s. British company J.W. Foster and Sons designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895; the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. The company sold its high-quality handmade running shoes to athletes around

6720-490: The ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture. Dick Hebdige writes that members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and symbolic use of style, which includes fashions , mannerisms , and argot . Subcultures can exist at all levels of organizations, highlighting the fact that there are multiple cultures or value combinations usually evident in any one organization that can complement but also compete with

6804-498: The working class, subcultures grow out of the presence of specific interests and affiliations around which cultural models spring up, in conflict with both their parents' culture and mainstream culture . Subcultural groups emphasize voluntary, informal, and organic subordinate relationships formed in unregulated street public spaces. Facing a weakening of class identity, subcultures are then new forms of collective identification , expressing what Cohen defined "symbolic resistance" against

6888-536: The world, eventually receiving a contract for the manufacture of running shoes for the British team in the 1924 Summer Olympics. Harold Abrahams and Eric Liddell won the 100 m and 400 m events, kitted out with Foster's running gear. This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, where they were called 'sneakers'. In 1892, the U.S. Rubber Company introduced

6972-420: Was developed in sociology and cultural studies . Subcultures differ from countercultures . The Oxford English Dictionary defines subculture, in regards to sociological and cultural anthropology, as "an identifiable subgroup within a society or group of people, esp. one characterized by beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger group; the distinctive ideas, practices, or way of life of such

7056-482: Was slightly altered to include "CONVERSE" in addition to "ALL★STAR", but the ankle patches of the high-cut shoes remained unchanged. In 2013, Converse launched the Chuck Taylor All Star '70, which featured a build similar to the All Stars used for basketball that were built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This retro model was different from the then-current Chuck Taylor All Stars, as various changes that happened to

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