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88-763: Chance Brothers and Company was a glassworks originally based in Spon Lane, Smethwick , West Midlands (formerly in Staffordshire ), in England. It was a leading glass manufacturer and a pioneer of British glassmaking technology. The Chance family originated in Bromsgrove in Worcestershire as farmers and craftsmen, before setting up business in Smethwick in 1822. Situated between Birmingham and

176-405: A glass (or vitreous solid) is a non-crystalline solid formed by rapid melt quenching . However, the term "glass" is often defined in a broader sense, to describe any non-crystalline ( amorphous ) solid that exhibits a glass transition when heated towards the liquid state. Glass is an amorphous solid . Although the atomic-scale structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure of

264-436: A supercooled liquid , glass exhibits all the mechanical properties of a solid. As in other amorphous solids , the atomic structure of a glass lacks the long-range periodicity observed in crystalline solids . Due to chemical bonding constraints, glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra . The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods well below

352-809: A turquoise colour in glass, in contrast to copper(I) oxide (Cu 2 O) which gives a dull red-brown colour. Soda–lime sheet glass is typically used as a transparent glazing material, typically as windows in external walls of buildings. Float or rolled sheet glass products are cut to size either by scoring and snapping the material, laser cutting , water jets , or diamond-bladed saw. The glass may be thermally or chemically tempered (strengthened) for safety and bent or curved during heating. Surface coatings may be added for specific functions such as scratch resistance, blocking specific wavelengths of light (e.g. infrared or ultraviolet ), dirt-repellence (e.g. self-cleaning glass ), or switchable electrochromic coatings. Structural glazing systems represent one of

440-562: A 24-inch (62 cm) flint glass lens for the Craig telescope . The French lens craftsman George Bontemps helped on the project, which for its day was a very large lens. They only made part of the lens which was a doublet, Thames Plate Glass Company made the other part. In 1870 Chance Brothers took over the failing Nailsea Glassworks in Somerset , but problems with coal supply led to the closure of that business. Elihu Burritt (1810–1879)

528-485: A clear "ring" sound when struck. However, lead glass cannot withstand high temperatures well. Lead oxide also facilitates the solubility of other metal oxides and is used in coloured glass. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glass); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders . The high ionic radius of

616-443: A green tint in thick sections. Manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ), which gives glass a purple colour, may be added to remove the green tint given by FeO. FeO and chromium(III) oxide (Cr 2 O 3 ) additives are used in the production of green bottles. Iron (III) oxide , on the other-hand, produces yellow or yellow-brown glass. Low concentrations (0.025 to 0.1%) of cobalt oxide (CoO) produce rich, deep blue cobalt glass . Chromium

704-408: A human timescale. Silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) is a common fundamental constituent of glass. Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically pure silica. It has very low thermal expansion and excellent resistance to thermal shock , being able to survive immersion in water while red hot, resists high temperatures (1000–1500 °C) and chemical weathering, and is very hard. It is also transparent to

792-405: A lighter alternative to traditional glass. Molecular liquids, electrolytes , molten salts , and aqueous solutions are mixtures of different molecules or ions that do not form a covalent network but interact only through weak van der Waals forces or transient hydrogen bonds . In a mixture of three or more ionic species of dissimilar size and shape, crystallization can be so difficult that

880-561: A long period at a temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way, the crystalline, devitrified material, known as Réaumur's glass porcelain is produced. Although generally transparent to visible light, glasses may be opaque to other wavelengths of light . While silicate glasses are generally opaque to infrared wavelengths with a transmission cut-off at 4 μm, heavy-metal fluoride and chalcogenide glasses are transparent to infrared wavelengths of 7 to 18 μm. The addition of metallic oxides results in different coloured glasses as

968-499: A major lighthouse engineering company, producing optical components, machinery, and other equipment for lighthouses around the world. James Timmins Chance pioneered placing lighthouse lamps inside a cage surrounded by Fresnel lenses to increase the available light output; the cages, known as optics, revolutionised lighthouse design. Another important innovation from Chance Brothers was the introduction of rotating optics, allowing adjacent lighthouses to be distinguished from each other by

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1056-482: A mass of hot semi-molten glass, inflating it into a bubble using a hollow blowpipe, and forming it into the required shape by blowing, swinging, rolling, or moulding. While hot, the glass can be worked using hand tools, cut with shears, and additional parts such as handles or feet attached by welding. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of

1144-517: A new process to grind the surfaces of plate glass was patented by James Timmins Chance . In 1848 under the supervision of Georges Bontemps , a French glassmaker from Choisy-le-Roi, who had purchased the secret of the stirrer after the deaths of Pierre Louis Guinand and Joseph von Fraunhofer , the pioneers of the manufacture of high-precision lenses for observatory telescopes, a new plant was set up to manufacture crown and flint glass for lighthouse optics, telescopes and cameras. Bontemps agreed to share

1232-453: A non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries . Glass-ceramics exhibit advantageous thermal, chemical, biological, and dielectric properties as compared to metals or organic polymers. The most commercially important property of glass-ceramics is their imperviousness to thermal shock. Thus, glass-ceramics have become extremely useful for countertop cooking and industrial processes. The negative thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) of

1320-594: A period of rationalisation at Pilkingtons, a management buy-out reverted the Chance plant in Malvern to private ownership and it became an independent company, changing its registered name to Chance Glass Limited, but retaining the historical Chance logo. Since then the company has continued to develop its range of products and processes, and areas now served include the pharmaceutical, chemical, metrology , electronics and lighting industries. From 1851, Chance Brothers became

1408-401: A plastic resin with glass fibres . It is made by melting glass and stretching the glass into fibres. These fibres are woven together into a cloth and left to set in a plastic resin. Fibreglass has the properties of being lightweight and corrosion resistant and is a good insulator enabling its use as building insulation material and for electronic housing for consumer products. Fibreglass

1496-462: A refractive index of 1.4 to 2.4, and an Abbe number (which characterises dispersion) of 15 to 100. The refractive index may be modified by high-density (refractive index increases) or low-density (refractive index decreases) additives. Glass transparency results from the absence of grain boundaries which diffusely scatter light in polycrystalline materials. Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced in many glasses by maintaining them for

1584-613: A result of finding a solution for an order from Joseph Paxton for a large greenhouse on the Chatsworth estate of the Dukes of Devonshire . It led to a contract to glaze the Crystal Palace in 1851 and which earned Joseph Paxton a knighthood. Based on technology by Sir William Crookes , Chance Brothers was responsible for perfecting the manufacture of glass for the earliest optical lenses to block harmful ultraviolet rays from

1672-412: A spinning metal disk. Several alloys have been produced in layers with thicknesses exceeding 1 millimetre. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sells several zirconium -based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys. Experimental evidence indicates that

1760-435: A structural analogue of silica, fluoride , aluminate , phosphate , borate , and chalcogenide glasses) have physicochemical properties useful for their application in fibre-optic waveguides in communication networks and other specialised technological applications. Silica-free glasses may often have poor glass-forming tendencies. Novel techniques, including containerless processing by aerodynamic levitation (cooling

1848-413: A structurally metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase. Glass is sometimes considered to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume , entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through

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1936-521: A wider spectral range than ordinary glass, extending from the visible further into both the UV and IR ranges, and is sometimes used where transparency to these wavelengths is necessary. Fused quartz is used for high-temperature applications such as furnace tubes, lighting tubes, melting crucibles, etc. However, its high melting temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with. Therefore, normally, other substances (fluxes) are added to lower

2024-418: Is 3.25 × 10 /°C as compared to about 9 × 10 /°C for a typical soda–lime glass ). They are, therefore, less subject to stress caused by thermal expansion and thus less vulnerable to cracking from thermal shock . They are commonly used for e.g. labware , household cookware , and sealed beam car head lamps . The addition of lead(II) oxide into silicate glass lowers the melting point and viscosity of

2112-552: Is a common volcanic glass with high silica (SiO 2 ) content formed when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly. Impactite is a form of glass formed by the impact of a meteorite , where Moldavite (found in central and eastern Europe), and Libyan desert glass (found in areas in the eastern Sahara , the deserts of eastern Libya and western Egypt ) are notable examples. Vitrification of quartz can also occur when lightning strikes sand , forming hollow, branching rootlike structures called fulgurites . Trinitite

2200-714: Is a glassy residue formed from the desert floor sand at the Trinity nuclear bomb test site. Edeowie glass , found in South Australia , is proposed to originate from Pleistocene grassland fires, lightning strikes, or hypervelocity impact by one or several asteroids or comets . Naturally occurring obsidian glass was used by Stone Age societies as it fractures along very sharp edges, making it ideal for cutting tools and weapons. Glassmaking dates back at least 6000 years, long before humans had discovered how to smelt iron. Archaeological evidence suggests that

2288-418: Is a very powerful colouring agent, yielding dark green. Sulphur combined with carbon and iron salts produces amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. A glass melt can also acquire an amber colour from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Cadmium sulfide produces imperial red , and combined with selenium can produce shades of yellow, orange, and red. Addition of copper(II) oxide (CuO) produces

2376-449: Is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture ( glass batch ), stirring the melt, and crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing. Colour in glass may be obtained by addition of homogenously distributed electrically charged ions (or colour centres ). While ordinary soda–lime glass appears colourless in thin section, iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities produce

2464-676: Is extensively used for fibreglass , used for making glass-reinforced plastics (boats, fishing rods, etc.), top-of-stove cookware, and halogen bulb glass. The addition of barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses. Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared radiation, for example in heat-absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs ultraviolet wavelengths. Fluorine lowers

2552-455: Is in widespread use in optical systems due to its ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics . The most common and oldest applications of glass in optics are as lenses , windows , mirrors , and prisms . The key optical properties refractive index , dispersion , and transmission , of glass are strongly dependent on chemical composition and, to a lesser degree, its thermal history. Optical glass typically has

2640-489: Is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The sags and ripples observed in old glass were already there the day it was made; manufacturing processes used in the past produced sheets with imperfect surfaces and non-uniform thickness (the near-perfect float glass used today only became widespread in the 1960s). A 2017 study computed the rate of flow of the medieval glass used in Westminster Abbey from

2728-487: Is often transparent and chemically inert, glass has found widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in window panes, tableware , and optics . Some common objects made of glass are named after the material, e.g. "glass" , " glasses ", " magnifying glass ". Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling ( quenching ) of the molten form. Some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring, and obsidian has been used to make arrowheads and knives since

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2816-901: Is produced by forcing molten glass through a fine mesh by centripetal force and breaking the extruded glass fibres into short lengths using a stream of high-velocity air. The fibres are bonded with an adhesive spray and the resulting wool mat is cut and packed in rolls or panels. Besides common silica-based glasses many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including metals , aluminates , phosphates , borates , chalcogenides , fluorides , germanates (glasses based on GeO 2 ), tellurites (glasses based on TeO 2 ), antimonates (glasses based on Sb 2 O 3 ), arsenates (glasses based on As 2 O 3 ), titanates (glasses based on TiO 2 ), tantalates (glasses based on Ta 2 O 5 ), nitrates , carbonates , plastics , acrylic , and many other substances. Some of these glasses (e.g. Germanium dioxide (GeO 2 , Germania), in many respects

2904-461: Is stronger than most metals, with a theoretical tensile strength for pure, flawless glass estimated at 14 to 35 gigapascals (2,000,000 to 5,100,000 psi) due to its ability to undergo reversible compression without fracture. However, the presence of scratches, bubbles, and other microscopic flaws lead to a typical range of 14 to 175 megapascals (2,000 to 25,400 psi) in most commercial glasses. Several processes such as toughening can increase

2992-408: Is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead, the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at T g . The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory . Generally, a glass exists in

3080-436: Is transparent, easily formed, and most suitable for window glass and tableware. However, it has a high thermal expansion and poor resistance to heat. Soda–lime glass is typically used for windows , bottles , light bulbs , and jars . Borosilicate glasses (e.g. Pyrex , Duran ) typically contain 5–13% boron trioxide (B 2 O 3 ). Borosilicate glasses have fairly low coefficients of thermal expansion (7740 Pyrex CTE

3168-703: The Black Country in the agglomeration of the Midlands industrial heartland, they took advantage of the skilled workers, canals and many advances that were taking place in the industrial West Midlands at the time. Throughout its almost two centuries of history many changes affected the company which, now in private ownership, continues to function as Chance Glass Limited , a specialised industrial glass manufacturer in Malvern, Worcestershire at one of its small subsidiary factories. The social and economic impact of

3256-582: The Elizabeth Tower, Palace of Westminster (housing Big Ben ) of the Houses of Parliament were damaged by Luftwaffe bombs during World War II . The damaged glass pieces needed to be replaced, but because of a difference in colour, it was decided to replace all the glass. The glass replaced by Chance Brothers was opal glass. In about 1848, Chance was one of the first companies to produce very long pieces of window glass, following technology developed as

3344-524: The Late Bronze Age , there was a rapid growth in glassmaking technology in Egypt and Western Asia . Archaeological finds from this period include coloured glass ingots , vessels, and beads. Much early glass production relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stoneworking , such as grinding and carving glass in a cold state. The term glass has its origins in the late Roman Empire , in

3432-535: The Renaissance period in Europe, the use of large stained glass windows became much less prevalent, although stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th century. During the 13th century, the island of Murano , Venice , became a centre for glass making, building on medieval techniques to produce colourful ornamental pieces in large quantities. Murano glass makers developed

3520-537: The Roman glass making centre at Trier (located in current-day Germany) where the late-Latin term glesum originated, likely from a Germanic word for a transparent , lustrous substance. Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire in domestic, funerary , and industrial contexts, as well as trade items in marketplaces in distant provinces. Examples of Roman glass have been found outside of

3608-1270: The Stone Age . Archaeological evidence suggests glassmaking dates back to at least 3600 BC in Mesopotamia , Egypt , or Syria . The earliest known glass objects were beads , perhaps created accidentally during metalworking or the production of faience , which is a form of pottery using lead glazes. Due to its ease of formability into any shape, glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such as bowls , vases , bottles , jars and drinking glasses. Soda–lime glass , containing around 70% silica , accounts for around 90% of modern manufactured glass. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed with vitreous enamels , leading to its use in stained glass windows and other glass art objects. The refractive , reflective and transmission properties of glass make glass suitable for manufacturing optical lenses , prisms , and optoelectronics materials. Extruded glass fibres have applications as optical fibres in communications networks, thermal insulating material when matted as glass wool to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic ( fibreglass ). The standard definition of

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3696-465: The dielectric constant of glass. Fluorine is highly electronegative and lowers the polarizability of the material. Fluoride silicate glasses are used in the manufacture of integrated circuits as an insulator. Glass-ceramic materials contain both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramic phases. They are formed by controlled nucleation and partial crystallisation of a base glass by heat treatment. Crystalline grains are often embedded within

3784-436: The glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda–lime glass for mass production is melted in glass-melting furnaces . Smaller-scale furnaces for speciality glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks. After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed . This may be achieved manually by glassblowing , which involves gathering

3872-510: The 10th century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals , with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint-Denis . By the 14th century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle , Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral . With the change in architectural style during

3960-461: The 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass . In the 1950s, Pilkington Bros. , England , developed the float glass process, producing high-quality distortion-free flat sheets of glass by floating on molten tin . Modern multi-story buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since

4048-518: The American philanthropist and social activist, once said about Chance, "In no other establishment in the world can one get such a full idea of the infinite uses which glass is made to serve as in these immense works." In 1900 a baronetcy was created for James Timmins Chance (22 March 1814 – 6 January 1902), a grandson of William Chance who had started the family business in 1771. James became head of Chance Brothers until his retirement in 1889, when

4136-827: The Crystal Palace to house the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the Houses of Parliament , (built 1840–1860). At that time it was the only firm able to make the opal glass for the four faces of the Westminster Clock Tower which houses the famous bell, Big Ben . The ornamental windows for the White House in America were also made there. Other products included stained glass windows, ornamental lamp shades , microscope glass slides, painted glassware, glass tubing and specialist types of glass. They made

4224-743: The Journal of the Society of the Arts in April 1872. He also noted statistics provided by the Thames Plate Glass Company, which state that the UK was producing 7.5 million feet of plate glass per year. The company went out of business by the mid-1870s. One of those employed by the company was Cuthbert Dixon , who went on to manage a plate-class company in America. Some contemporaries to

4312-687: The Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other applications in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy collectors. In the 21st century, glass manufacturers have developed different brands of chemically strengthened glass for widespread application in touchscreens for smartphones , tablet computers , and many other types of information appliances . These include Gorilla Glass , developed and manufactured by Corning , AGC Inc. 's Dragontrail and Schott AG 's Xensation. Glass

4400-543: The Pb ion renders it highly immobile and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda–lime glass (10 vs 10  Ω⋅cm, DC at 250 °C). Aluminosilicate glass typically contains 5–10% alumina (Al 2 O 3 ). Aluminosilicate glass tends to be more difficult to melt and shape compared to borosilicate compositions but has excellent thermal resistance and durability. Aluminosilicate glass

4488-485: The UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Once

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4576-719: The action of water, making it an ideal material for the manufacture of containers for foodstuffs and most chemicals. Nevertheless, although usually highly resistant to chemical attack, glass will corrode or dissolve under some conditions. The materials that make up a particular glass composition affect how quickly the glass corrodes. Glasses containing a high proportion of alkali or alkaline earth elements are more susceptible to corrosion than other glass compositions. The density of glass varies with chemical composition with values ranging from 2.2 grams per cubic centimetre (2,200 kg/m ) for fused silica to 7.2 grams per cubic centimetre (7,200 kg/m ) for dense flint glass. Glass

4664-511: The company became a public company and its name changed to Chance Brothers & Co. Ltd . Sir James Chance was the first baronet. The company in partnership with the Ministry of Munitions' Optical Munitions and Glass Department expanded significantly during World War I In the early 20th century, many new ways of making glass evolved at Chance Brothers such as the innovative welding of a cathode-ray tube used for radar detection. In 1933,

4752-817: The company on the region is the subject of a project sponsored by the Heritage Lottery Fund . Robert Lucas Chance (8 October 1782 – 7 March 1865), known as 'Lucas', bought the British Crown Glass Company's works in Spon Lane in November 1822. The company specialised in making crown window glass . The company ran into difficulty and its survival was guaranteed in 1832 by investment from Chance's brother, William (29 August 1788 – 8 February 1856) who owned an iron factoring business in Great Charles Street, Birmingham. After

4840-546: The company was involved in production of cathode-ray tubes for early radar sets, making up to 7,000 per week. In 1943 the artist Mervyn Peake was commissioned by the War Artists' Advisory Committee , WAAC, to paint pictures recording such work. Pilkington Brothers acquired a 50% shareholding in 1945 but the Chance operation continued to be largely separately managed and a factory was established in Malvern, Worcestershire in 1947 to specialise in laboratory glass where

4928-603: The company was reported to be involved in an attempt to contact "any intelligent life" on the planet Mars, using adapted lighthouse optics from a mountaintop, the Jungfrau , in Switzerland. Chance also popularised slumped glass tableware, Fiestaware that included many innovative designs, including the famous Swirl pattern (1955), and also Lace (1951), Night Sky (1957), Green Leaves (1958), Calypto (1959), with floral depictions from 1965 with Anemone. During world War II ,

5016-411: The cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide ), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition). Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during

5104-427: The crystalline ceramic phase can be balanced with the positive CTE of the glassy phase. At a certain point (~70% crystalline) the glass-ceramic has a net CTE near zero. This type of glass-ceramic exhibits excellent mechanical properties and can sustain repeated and quick temperature changes up to 1000 °C. Fibreglass (also called glass fibre reinforced plastic, GRP) is a composite material made by reinforcing

5192-683: The desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses and to increase the glass's hardness and durability. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability ( glass container coatings , glass container internal treatment ), strength ( toughened glass , bulletproof glass , windshields ), or optical properties ( insulated glazing , anti-reflective coating ). New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because

5280-466: The exceptionally clear colourless glass cristallo , so called for its resemblance to natural crystal, which was extensively used for windows, mirrors, ships' lanterns, and lenses. In the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, enamelling and gilding on glass vessels were perfected in Egypt and Syria. Towards the end of the 17th century, Bohemia became an important region for glass production, remaining so until

5368-459: The first true synthetic glass was made in Lebanon and the coastal north Syria , Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt . The earliest known glass objects, of the mid-third millennium BC, were beads , perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metalworking ( slags ) or during the production of faience , a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing . Early glass

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5456-754: The former Roman Empire in China , the Baltics , the Middle East , and India . The Romans perfected cameo glass , produced by etching and carving through fused layers of different colours to produce a design in relief on the glass object. In post-classical West Africa, Benin was a manufacturer of glass and glass beads. Glass was used extensively in Europe during the Middle Ages . Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. From

5544-555: The glass and melt phases. Important polymer glasses include amorphous and glassy pharmaceutical compounds. These are useful because the solubility of the compound is greatly increased when it is amorphous compared to the same crystalline composition. Many emerging pharmaceuticals are practically insoluble in their crystalline forms. Many polymer thermoplastics familiar to everyday use are glasses. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear , polymer glasses ( acrylic glass , polycarbonate or polyethylene terephthalate ) are

5632-493: The glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous. However, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids. Glass can form naturally from volcanic magma. Obsidian

5720-406: The glass transition temperature is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity in solids ). Though atomic motion at glass surfaces can be observed, and viscosity on the order of 10 –10 Pa s can be measured in glass, such a high value reinforces the fact that glass would not change shape appreciably over even large periods of time. For melt quenching, if the cooling

5808-458: The liquid can easily be supercooled into a glass. Examples include LiCl: R H 2 O (a solution of lithium chloride salt and water molecules) in the composition range 4< R <8. sugar glass , or Ca 0.4 K 0.6 (NO 3 ) 1.4 . Glass electrolytes in the form of Ba-doped Li-glass and Ba-doped Na-glass have been proposed as solutions to problems identified with organic liquid electrolytes used in modern lithium-ion battery cells. Following

5896-481: The melt whilst it floats on a gas stream) or splat quenching (pressing the melt between two metal anvils or rollers), may be used to increase the cooling rate or to reduce crystal nucleation triggers. In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto

5984-433: The melt. The high density of lead glass (silica + lead oxide (PbO) + potassium oxide (K 2 O) + soda (Na 2 O) + zinc oxide (ZnO) + alumina) results in a high electron density, and hence high refractive index, making the look of glassware more brilliant and causing noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion . Lead glass has a high elasticity, making the glassware more workable and giving rise to

6072-619: The melting temperature and simplify glass processing. Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 , "soda") is a common additive and acts to lower the glass-transition temperature. However, sodium silicate is water-soluble , so lime (CaO, calcium oxide , generally obtained from limestone ), along with magnesium oxide (MgO), and aluminium oxide (Al 2 O 3 ), are commonly added to improve chemical durability. Soda–lime glasses (Na 2 O) + lime (CaO) + magnesia (MgO) + alumina (Al 2 O 3 ) account for over 75% of manufactured glass, containing about 70 to 74% silica by weight. Soda–lime–silicate glass

6160-410: The metallic ions will absorb wavelengths of light corresponding to specific colours. In the manufacturing process, glasses can be poured, formed, extruded and moulded into forms ranging from flat sheets to highly intricate shapes. The finished product is brittle but can be laminated or tempered to enhance durability. Glass is typically inert, resistant to chemical attack, and can mostly withstand

6248-409: The most significant architectural innovations of modern times, where glass buildings now often dominate the skylines of many modern cities . These systems use stainless steel fittings countersunk into recesses in the corners of the glass panels allowing strengthened panes to appear unsupported creating a flush exterior. Structural glazing systems have their roots in iron and glass conservatories of

6336-406: The nineteenth century Thames Plate Glass Company The company produced part of the optics for the Craig telescope , a large telescope with a lens built in the 1850s. The lens was a doublet with a flint glass by Chance Brothers and a plate glass cast by Thames Plate Glass Company. In 1872 the company provided glass samples to Professor Barff. He had a lecture published about this in

6424-403: The number of times per revolution that the light flashes. John Hopkinson , the noted English physicist and engineer, invented this system, while employed at Chance Brothers. One of Chance's major contributions was the development of rolled-plate glass . During the 20th century, rolled-plate glass became the mainstay of the company's operation. The German opal glass in the faces of the clock in

6512-412: The operation was incorporated as an arms-length subsidiary. In 1948 the Malvern plant produced the world's first interchangeable syringe . By the end of 1952 Pilkington had assumed full financial control of Chance Brothers, but were not actively involved in its management until the mid- to late-1960s. When plastic disposable syringes displaced glass in the late 1960s, the range of its precision bore product

6600-558: The partners, in West Smethwick Park . The archives of Chance Brothers Ltd are held at Sandwell Community History and Archives Service . Additional papers are held at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham. 52°30′22″N 1°59′35″W  /  52.506°N 1.993°W  / 52.506; -1.993 Glass Glass is an amorphous ( non-crystalline ) solid. Because it

6688-584: The partnership with the Hartley Brothers was dissolved in 1836, Lucas and William Chance became partners in the business, which was renamed Chance Brothers and Company . Chance Brothers was amongst the earliest glass works to carry out the cylinder process in Europe, and the company became known as "... the greatest glass manufacturer in Britain." In 1832, it made the first British cylinder blown sheet glass using French and Belgian workers. In 1839,

6776-497: The secret with Chance Brothers and stayed in England to collaborate with them for six years. Just three other companies in Britain made glass in the same way, Pilkington of St Helens , Hartleys of Sunderland and Cooksons of Newcastle . During 1832, Chance Brothers became the first company to adopt the cylinder method to produce sheet glass, and became the largest British manufacturer of window and plate glass , and optical glasses. Other Chance Brothers projects included glazing

6864-424: The selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating selenium dioxide (SeO 2 ). Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH) 3 ) over alumina (Al 2 O 3 ). Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity

6952-603: The start of the 20th century. By the 17th century, glass in the Venetian tradition was also being produced in England . In about 1675, George Ravenscroft invented lead crystal glass, with cut glass becoming fashionable in the 18th century. Ornamental glass objects became an important art medium during the Art Nouveau period in the late 19th century. Throughout the 20th century, new mass production techniques led to

7040-469: The strength of glass. Carefully drawn flawless glass fibres can be produced with a strength of up to 11.5 gigapascals (1,670,000 psi). The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumption

7128-528: The sun while retaining transparency. Chance continued to use Crookes as a tradename into the 1960s. Chance developed cathode-ray tubes (CRTs) just before the outbreak of World War II. Using Hysil glass, a borosilicate glass similar to Pyrex , Chance became a major contributor to developing new methods for producing CRTs during World War II that were the precursors of CRT television screen. The tubes at that time were used for radar detection displays. Chance Bros developed precision bore glass tubing under

7216-460: The system Al-Fe-Si may undergo a first-order transition to an amorphous form (dubbed "q-glass") on rapid cooling from the melt. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images indicate that q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles with uniform spherical growth in all directions. While x-ray diffraction reveals the isotropic nature of q-glass, a nucleation barrier exists implying an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between

7304-677: The trade name Veridia in the 1950s. The glassworks lies between the Birmingham Canal Navigations (BCN) Old Main Line and New Main Line canals near the Spon Lane locks and has several Grade II listed warehouses and adjacent canal bridges on the BCN New Main Line. The works lie within the Smethwick Summit - Galton Valley Conservation area . There is a listed memorial to James Timmins Chance, one of

7392-451: The widespread availability of glass in much larger amounts, making it practical as a building material and enabling new applications of glass. In the 1920s a mould -etch process was developed, in which art was etched directly into the mould so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap glassware in

7480-402: The year 1268. The study found that the room temperature viscosity of this glass was roughly 10   Pa · s which is about 10 times less viscous than a previous estimate made in 1998, which focused on soda-lime silicate glass. Even with this lower viscosity, the study authors calculated that the maximum flow rate of medieval glass is 1 nm per billion years, making it impossible to observe in

7568-406: Was diversified. The production of flat glass ceased at Smethwick in 1976. The remainder of the works closed in 1981 ending more than 150 years of glass production at Smethwick and all flat glass production was absorbed by Pilkington's St Helens factories. Remaining glass tube processing, especially the manufacture of syringes and laboratory glassware, was moved to the Malvern plant. In 1992, during

7656-517: Was originally used in the United Kingdom and United States during World War II to manufacture radomes . Uses of fibreglass include building and construction materials, boat hulls, car body parts, and aerospace composite materials. Glass-fibre wool is an excellent thermal and sound insulation material, commonly used in buildings (e.g. attic and cavity wall insulation ), and plumbing (e.g. pipe insulation ), and soundproofing . It

7744-556: Was rarely transparent and often contained impurities and imperfections, and is technically faience rather than true glass, which did not appear until the 15th century BC. However, red-orange glass beads excavated from the Indus Valley Civilization dated before 1700 BC (possibly as early as 1900 BC) predate sustained glass production, which appeared around 1600 BC in Mesopotamia and 1500 BC in Egypt. During

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