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130-611: Chandrayaan-3 ( IPA : / ˌ tʃ ʌ n d r ə ˈ j ɑː n / , ISO : Caṁdrayāna ) is the third mission in the Chandrayaan programme , a series of lunar-exploratio n missions developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The mission consists of a Vikram lunar lander and a Pragyan lunar rover was launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre on 14 July 2023. The spacecraft entered lunar orbit on 5 August, and India became

260-465: A diaphoneme , which represents this interdialectal correspondence. A commonly-used system of lexical sets, devised by John C. Wells , is presented below; for each set, the corresponding phonemes are given for RP and General American, using the notation that will be used on this page. For a table that shows the pronunciations of these vowels in a wider range of English accents, see Sound correspondences between English accents . The following tables show

390-515: A "time-reversed" wave is generated by the PCM with temporal encoding of the phase-conjugate wave (see, e.g., SciAm, Oct. 1990, "The Photorefractive Effect," David M. Pepper, et al. ). Inexpensive corner-aiming retroreflectors are used in user-controlled technology as optical datalink devices. Aiming is done at night, and the necessary retroreflector area depends on aiming distance and ambient lighting from street lamps. The optical receiver itself behaves as

520-564: A "tremendous accomplishment". Apart from sulfur, the rover also detected other elements including aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O). The agency said it is also searching for hydrogen (H). On 31 August, ISRO released plasma density data from the RAMBHA Instrument aboard the Vikram lander. Initial assessments reported relatively low plasma densities above

650-453: A , b , c ] to [− a , b , c ] to [− a , − b , c ] to [− a , − b , − c ] and it leaves the corner with all three components of its direction exactly reversed. Corner reflectors occur in two varieties. In the more common form, the corner is literally the truncated corner of a cube of transparent material such as conventional optical glass. In this structure, the reflection is achieved either by total internal reflection or silvering of

780-716: A VC syllable /æŋsts/ rather than as VC /æŋksts/ ). From the phonetic point of view, the analysis of syllable structures is a complex task: because of widespread occurrences of articulatory overlap, English speakers rarely produce an audible release of individual consonants in consonant clusters. This coarticulation can lead to articulatory gestures that seem very much like deletions or complete assimilations. For example, hundred pounds may sound like [hʌndɹɪ b paʊndz] and jumped back (in slow speech, [dʒʌmptbæk] ) may sound like [dʒʌmpbæk] , but X-ray and electropalatographic studies demonstrate that inaudible and possibly weakened contacts or lingual gestures may still be made. Thus

910-497: A cluster that does not occur initially in English. The division /ˈɛk.strə/ is therefore preferred. If assigning a consonant or consonants to the following syllable would result in the preceding syllable ending in an unreduced short vowel, this is avoided. Thus the word lemma should be divided /ˈlɛm.ə/ and not * /ˈlɛ.mə/ , even though the latter division gives the maximal onset to the following syllable. In some cases, no solution

1040-548: A fricative before /θ/ is elided so that these never appear phonetically: /fɪfθ/ becomes [fɪθ] , /sɪksθ/ becomes [sɪkθ] , /twɛlfθ/ becomes [twɛlθ] . The prosodic features of English – stress, rhythm, and intonation – can be described as follows. Prosodic stress is extra stress given to words or syllables when they appear in certain positions in an utterance, or when they receive special emphasis. According to Ladefoged's analysis (as referred to under § Lexical stress above), English normally has prosodic stress on

1170-489: A limited guide to the phonology of other dialects of English. A phoneme of a language or dialect is an abstraction of a speech sound or of a group of different sounds that are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of that particular language or dialect. For example, the English word through consists of three phonemes: the initial "th" sound, the "r" sound, and a vowel sound. The phonemes in that and many other English words do not always correspond directly to

1300-529: A location marker close to the lunar south pole. Through multinational cooperation, the LRA was housed on the Vikram lander. On a hemispherical support framework, it consists of eight corner-cube retroreflectors. This array enables any orbiting spacecraft equipped with appropriate instruments to use lasers ranging from different directions. The 20 gram passive optical instrument is intended to survive for several decades on

1430-413: A mbition and the /aɪ/ in fin i te . Some phonologists regard such syllables as not being fully unstressed (they may describe them as having tertiary stress ); some dictionaries have marked such syllables as having secondary stress . However linguists such as Ladefoged and Bolinger (1986) regard this as a difference purely of vowel quality and not of stress, and thus argue that vowel reduction itself

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1560-403: A passenger automobile. As the observation angle increases, the reflector performance decreases. For example, a truck has a large separation between the headlight and the driver's eye compared to a passenger vehicle. A bicycle reflector appears brighter to the passenger car driver than to the truck driver at the same distance from the vehicle to the reflector. The light beam and the normal axis of

1690-515: A point. Two prisms may also serve as targets for angle measurements , using total stations or simpler theodolites ; this usage, reminiscent of the heliotrope , does not involve retroreflection per se, it only requires visibility by means of any source of illumination (such as the sun) for direct sighting to the center of the target prism as seen from the optical instrument. Astronauts on the Apollo 11 , 14 , and 15 missions left retroreflectors on

1820-487: A radius from the centerline at which incident rays are focused at the center of the rear surface of the sphere. Finally, high index materials have higher Fresnel reflection coefficients, so the efficiency of coupling of the light from the ambient into the sphere decreases as the index becomes higher. Commercial retroreflective beads thus vary in index from around 1.5 (common forms of glass) up to around 1.9 (commonly barium titanate glass). The spherical aberration problem with

1950-461: A retroreflector—usually referred to as a prism —is normally attached on a surveying pole and is used as a target for distance measurement , for example, a total station . The instrument operator or robot aims a laser beam at the retroreflector. The instrument measures the propagation time of the light and converts it to a distance. Prisms are used with survey and 3D point monitoring systems to measure changes in horizontal and vertical position of

2080-523: A series of scientific research satellites designed to provide an orbiting laser ranging benchmark for geodynamical studies of the Earth. There are two LAGEOS spacecraft: LAGEOS-1 (launched in 1976), and LAGEOS-2 (launched in 1992). They use cube-corner retroreflectors made of fused silica glass. As of 2020, both LAGEOS spacecraft are still in service. Three STARSHINE satellites equipped with retroreflectors were launched beginning in 1999. The LARES satellite

2210-534: A type of Luneburg lens , was developed and manufactured by the Institute for Precision Instrument Engineering (IPIE) in Moscow. The mission was interrupted in 2013 after a collision with space debris . Modulated retroreflectors, in which the reflectance is changed over time by some means, are the subject of research and development for free-space optical communications networks. The basic concept of such systems

2340-521: A voiceless /r/ (and for some people an affricated tr as in tree ), vs night-rate /ˈnaɪt.reɪt/ → [ˈnaɪt̚ɹeɪt] with a voiced /r/ . Cues of syllable boundaries include aspiration of syllable onsets and (in the US) flapping of coda /t, d/ (a tease /ə.ˈtiːz/ → [əˈtʰiːz] vs. at ease /ət.ˈiːz/ → [əɾˈiːz] ), epenthetic stops like [t] in syllable codas ( fence /ˈfens/ → [ˈfents] but inside /ɪn.ˈsaɪd/ → [ɪnˈsaɪd] ), and r-colored vowels when

2470-534: A way that divides words in a counter-intuitive way; thus the word hardware would be divided /ˈhɑː.dweə/ by the maximal onset principle, but dictionaries prefer the division /ˈhɑːd.weə/ . In the approach used by the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary , Wells claims that consonants syllabify with the preceding rather than following vowel when the preceding vowel is the nucleus of a more salient syllable, with stressed syllables being

2600-475: A weak retroreflector because it contains a large, precisely focused lens that detects illuminated objects in its focal plane. This allows aiming without a retroreflector for short ranges. Retroreflectors are used in the following example applications: Many prey and predator animals have naturally retroreflective eyes by having a reflective layer called the Tapetum lucidum behind the retina, since this doubles

2730-587: A whole, lexical sets are often used, each named by a word containing the vowel or vowels in question. For example, the LOT set consists of words which, like lot , have /ɒ/ in Received Pronunciation and /ɑ/ in General American . The " LOT vowel" then refers to the vowel that appears in those words in whichever dialect is being considered, or (at a greater level of abstraction ) to

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2860-466: Is a six-wheeled vehicle with a mass of 26 kilograms (57 pounds). It is 917 by 750 by 397 millimetres (36.1 in × 29.5 in × 15.6 in) in size. The rover is expected to take multiple measurements to support research into the composition of the lunar surface, the presence of water ice in the lunar soil, the history of lunar impacts, and the evolution of the Moon's atmosphere. Chandrayaan-3

2990-399: Is a vehicle's headlights, where the light is sent to the traffic sign face and then returned to the vehicle operator. Retroreflective traffic sign faces are manufactured with glass beads or prismatic reflectors embedded in a base sheeting layer so that the face reflects light, therefore making the sign appear more bright and visible to the vehicle operator under darkened conditions. According to

3120-406: Is ascribed one of three degrees of stress: primary , secondary or unstressed . Ordinarily, in each such word there will be exactly one syllable with primary stress, possibly one syllable having secondary stress, and the remainder are unstressed (unusually-long words may have multiple syllables with secondary stress). For example, the word a ma zing has primary stress on the second syllable, while

3250-475: Is completely satisfactory: for example, in British English (RP) the word hurry could be divided /ˈhʌ.ri/ or /ˈhʌr.i/ , but the former would result in an analysis with a syllable-final /ʌ/ (which is held to be non-occurring) while the latter would result in a syllable final /r/ (which is said not to occur in this accent). Some phonologists have suggested a compromise analysis where the consonant in

3380-541: Is currently orbiting Earth with a perigee and apogee altitude that vary during its trajectory and the predicted minimum perigee altitude is 115,000 kilometres (71,000 mi), with an orbital period of nearly 13 days with 27 degree inclination. The SHAPE payload is operated whenever Earth is in its field of view, as well during special events such as the 28 October 2023 solar eclipse . The SHAPE payload operations are planned to continue further. The Propulsion module operated until 22 August 2024. In December 2019, ISRO requested

3510-608: Is generally ascribed to syllables that are pronounced with less force than those with secondary stress, but nonetheless contain a "full" or "unreduced" vowel (vowels that are considered to be reduced are listed under English phonology § Unstressed syllables above). Hence the third syllable of organization , if pronounced with /aɪ/ as shown above (rather than being reduced to /ɪ/ or /ə/ ), might be said to have tertiary stress. (The precise identification of secondary and tertiary stress differs between analyses; dictionaries do not generally show tertiary stress, although some have taken

3640-501: Is incident (n i is around 1 for air). In that case, the sphere surface behaves as a concave spherical mirror with the required curvature for retroreflection. In practice, the optimal index of refraction may be lower than n i + 1 ≅ 2 due to several factors. For one, it is sometimes preferable to have an imperfect, slightly divergent retroreflection, as in the case of road signs, where the illumination and observation angles are different. Due to spherical aberration , there also exists

3770-522: Is phonemic in English. Examples of words where vowel reduction seems to be distinctive for some speakers include chickar ee vs. chicor y (the latter has the reduced vowel of HAPP Y , whereas the former has the FLEECE vowel without reduction), and Phar aoh vs. farr ow (both have the GOAT vowel, but in the latter word it may reduce to [ɵ] ). Lexical stress is phonemic in English. For example,

3900-892: Is recognized and recommended by the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) because of its high reflectivity of both light and radar signals. Application to life rafts , personal flotation devices, and other safety gear makes it easy to locate people and objects in the water at night. When applied to boat surfaces it creates a larger radar signature —particularly for fiberglass boats, which produce very little radar reflection on their own. It conforms to International Maritime Organization regulation, IMO Res. A.658 (16) and meets U.S. Coast Guard specification 46 CFR Part 164, Subpart 164.018/5/0. Examples of commercially available products are 3M part numbers 3150A and 6750I, and Orafol Oralite FD1403. In surveying ,

4030-413: Is that a low-power remote system, such as a sensor mote, can receive an optical signal from a base station and reflect the modulated signal back to the base station. Since the base station supplies the optical power, this allows the remote system to communicate without excessive power consumption. Modulated retroreflectors also exist in the form of modulated phase-conjugate mirrors (PCMs). In the latter case,

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4160-400: Is the study of the sequences of phonemes that occur in languages and the sound structures that they form. In this study it is usual to represent consonants in general with the letter C and vowels with the letter V, so that a syllable such as 'be' is described as having CV structure. The IPA symbol used to show a division between syllables is the full stop ⟨ . ⟩. Syllabification is

4290-404: Is unstressed, it is reduced to schwa. Also, certain common words ( a , an , of , for , etc.) are pronounced with a schwa when they are unstressed, although they have different vowels when they are in a stressed position (see Weak and strong forms in English ). Some unstressed syllables, however, retain full (unreduced) vowels, i.e. vowels other than those listed above. Examples are the /æ/ in

4420-402: Is used on road surfaces, road signs , vehicles , and clothing (large parts of the surface of special safety clothing , less on regular coats). When the headlights of a car illuminate a retroreflective surface, the reflected light is directed towards the car and its driver (rather than in all directions as with diffuse reflection ). However, a pedestrian can see retroreflective surfaces in

4550-424: The /l/ is a little longer and the /ɪ/ is not reduced. Similarly, in toe-strap Wells argues that the second /t/ is a full plosive, as usual in syllable onset, whereas in toast-rack the second /t/ is in many dialects reduced to the unreleased allophone it takes in syllable codas, or even elided: /ˈtoʊ.stræp/, /ˈtoʊst.ræk/ → [ˈtoˑʊstɹæp, ˈtoʊs(t̚)ɹæk] ; likewise nitrate /ˈnaɪtr.eɪt/ → [ˈnaɪtɹ̥eɪt] with

4680-1628: The /r/ is in the coda vs. labialization when it is in the onset (key-ring /ˈkiː.rɪŋ/ → [ˈkiːɹʷɪŋ] but fearing /ˈfiːr.ɪŋ/ → [ˈfɪəɹɪŋ] ). The following can occur as the onset : /pl/ , /bl/ , /kl/ , /ɡl/ , /pr/ , /br/ , /tr/ , /dr/ , /kr/ , /ɡr/ , /tw/ , /dw/ , /ɡw/ , /kw/ , /pw/ /fl/ , /sl/ , /θl/ , /ʃl/ , /fr/ , /θr/ , /ʃr/ , /hw/ , /sw/ , /θw/ , /vw/ /pj/ , /bj/ , /tj/ , /dj/ , /kj/ , /ɡj/ , /mj/ , /nj/ , /fj/ , /vj/ , /θj/ , /sj/ , /zj/ , /hj/ , /lj/ /sp/ , /st/ , /sk/ /sm/ , /sn/ /sf/ , /sθ/ /spl/ , /skl/ , /spr/ , /str/ , /skr/ , /skw/ , /spj/ , /stj/ , /skj/ /smj/ /snj/ /sfr/ Notes: Certain English onsets appear only in contractions: e.g. /zbl/ ( 'sblood ), and /zw/ or /dzw/ ( 'swounds or 'dswounds ). Some, such as /pʃ/ ( pshaw ), /fw/ ( fwoosh ), or /vr/ ( vroom ), can occur in interjections . An archaic voiceless fricative plus nasal exists, /fn/ ( fnese ), as does an archaic /snj/ ( snew ). Several additional onsets occur in loan words (with varying degrees of anglicization) such as /bw/ ( bwana ), /mw/ ( moiré ), /nw/ ( noire ), /tsw/ ( zwitterion ), /zw/ ( zwieback ), /dv/ ( Dvorak ), /kv/ ( kvetch ), /ʃv/ ( schvartze ), /tv/ ( Tver ), /tsv/ ( Zwickau ), /kʃ/ ( Kshatriya ), /sɡl/ ( sglods ), /tl/ ( Tlaloc ), /vl/ ( Vladimir ), /zl/ ( zloty ), /tsk/ ( Tskhinvali ), /hm/ ( Hmong ), /km/ ( Khmer ), and /ŋ/ ( Nganasan ). Some clusters of this type can be converted to regular English phonotactics by simplifying

4810-637: The Chandrayaan-2 was launched said, "We are really excited to see this grand success. For this, we have been waiting for the last four years. This success is sweet news for us and for the entire nation." Rahul Gandhi , the leader of congress, also celebrated Chandrayaan-3's success, calling it a result of "tremendous ingenuity and hard work" by the country's scientific community. "Since 1962, India's space program has continued to scale new heights and inspire generations of young dreamers," he posted on X. Delhi chief minister Arvind Kejriwal congratulated

4940-594: The European Space Agency (ESA), and Deep Space Network operated by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of NASA are supporting the mission. Under a new cross-support arrangement, ESA tracking support could be provided for upcoming ISRO missions such as those of India's first human spaceflight programme, Gaganyaan , and the Aditya-L1 solar research mission. In return, future ESA missions will receive similar support from ISRO's own tracking stations. For

5070-619: The Moon as part of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment . The Soviet Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2 rovers also carried smaller arrays. Reflected signals were initially received from Lunokhod 1 , but no return signals were detected from 1971 until 2010, at least in part due to some uncertainty in its location on the Moon. In 2010, it was found in Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photographs and

5200-528: The 24 consonant phonemes found in most dialects of English, plus /x/ , whose distribution is more limited. Fortis consonants are always voiceless , aspirated in syllable onset (except in clusters beginning with /s/ or /ʃ/ ), and sometimes also glottalized to an extent in syllable coda (most likely to occur with /t/ , see T-glottalization ), while lenis consonants are always unaspirated and un-glottalized, and generally partially or fully voiced . The alveolars are usually apical , i.e. pronounced with

5330-521: The 4th country to successfully soft-land a spacecraft on the Moon. We're glad to be your partner on this mission". Cyril Ramaphosa , the president of South Africa said "This for us, as the BRICS family, is a momentous occasion and we rejoice with you. We join you in the joy of this great achievement." The Kremlin quoted Russian president Vladimir Putin 's message to Indian president Droupadi Murmu and Modi, "Please, accept my heartfelt congratulations on

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5460-547: The Earth's atmosphere around 9:12 UTC. The impact point is predicted over the North Pacific Ocean and the final ground track did not pass over India. After a series of Earth bound manoeuvres that placed Chandrayaan-3 in a trans-lunar injection orbit, ISRO performed a lunar-orbit insertion (LOI) on 5 August, successfully placing the Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon. The LOI operation

5590-531: The Moon—compounds which could provide insight into lunar, Earth, and Solar System history. Mountains and craters create unpredictable lighting that protect the ice from melting, but they also make landing there a challenging undertaking for scientific probes. For future crewed missions and outposts, the ice could also be a source of oxygen, of drinking water as well as of fuel due to its hydrogen content. The European Space Tracking network (ESTRACK), operated by

5720-542: The RHUs could not be installed on Chandrayaan-3's Vikram lander and Pragyan rover because it would have increased their mass. This reduced their maximum lifespan to 14 Earth days , or 1 lunar day . On 4 December 2023, ISRO reported that the propulsion module was reinserted into an orbit around the Earth. The primary objective of the reinsertion was to allow Earth observations by spectral and polarimetric instruments. It operated until 22 August 2024. The Vikram lander

5850-462: The U.S. are made with retroreflective sheeting materials, they degrade over time. Until now, there has been little information available to determine how long the retroreflectivity lasts. The MUTCD now requires that agencies maintain traffic signs to a set of minimum levels but provide a variety of maintenance methods that agencies can use for compliance. The minimum retroreflectivity requirements do not imply that an agency must measure every sign. Rather,

5980-564: The United States Federal Highway Administration (FHWA): Approximately 24% of all vehicle accidents occur during adverse weather (rain, sleet, snow and fog). Rain conditions account for 47% of weather-related accidents. These statistics are based on 14-year averages from 1995 to 2008. The FHWA's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices requires that signs be either illuminated or made with retroreflective sheeting materials, and though most signs in

6110-666: The United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the Traffic Safety Facts 2000 publication states the fatal crash rate is 3-4 times more likely during nighttime crashes than daytime incidents. A misconception many people have is that retroreflectivity is only important during night-time travel. However, in recent years, more states and agencies require that headlights be turned on in inclement weather such as rain and snow. According to

6240-474: The United States, as it is not affected by the passage of snowplows and does not affect the interior of the roadway. Where weather permits, embedded or raised retroreflectors are preferred as they last much longer than road paint, which is weathered by the elements, can be obscured by sediment or rain, and is ground away by the passage of vehicles. For traffic signs and vehicle operators, the light source

6370-448: The apogee from 150 km to 5112 km and orbital period from 2.1 hours to 7.2 hours. The Trans-Earth Injection was done on 13 October 2023 with a targeted orbit of ~380,000 x 180,000 km. This was followed by four lunar flyby 's with the last one on 7 November 2023. The module exited lunar SOI on 10 November 2023 and had the first perigee crossing on 22 November 2023 at an altitude of about 154,000 km. The propulsion module

6500-472: The approach of marking all syllables with unreduced vowels as having at least secondary stress.) In some analyses, then, the concept of lexical stress may become conflated with that of vowel reduction. An approach that attempts to separate both is provided by Peter Ladefoged , who states that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction . In this approach,

6630-401: The cat's eye retroreflector to the optical system that produces the well-known phenomenon of "glowing eyes" or eyeshine in cats and other vertebrates (which are only reflecting light, rather than actually glowing). The combination of the eye's lens and the cornea form the refractive converging system, while the tapetum lucidum behind the retina forms the spherical concave mirror. Because

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6760-419: The cluster: e.g. /(d)z/ ( dziggetai ), /(h)r/ ( Hrolf ), /kr(w)/ ( croissant ), /(ŋ)w/ ( Nguyen ), /(p)f/ ( pfennig ), /(f)θ/ ( phthalic ), /(t)s/ ( tsunami ), /(ǃ)k/ ( !kung ), and /k(ǁ)/ ( Xhosa ). Others can be replaced by native clusters differing only in voice : /zb ~ sp/ ( sbirro ), and /zɡr ~ skr/ ( sgraffito ). The following can occur as the nucleus : Most (in theory, all) of

6890-412: The consonant cluster CC is a possible syllable coda; in addition, /r/ preferentially syllabifies with the preceding vowel even when both syllables are unstressed, so that CVrV occurs as /CVr.V/ . This is the analysis used in the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary . However, this view is not widely accepted, as explained in the following section. English allows clusters of up to three consonants in

7020-400: The corner's sides form a basis ( x , y , z ) in which to represent the direction of an arbitrary incoming ray, [ a , b , c ] . When the ray reflects from the first side, say x, the ray's x -component, a , is reversed to − a , while the y - and z -components are unchanged. Therefore, as the ray reflects first from side x then side y and finally from side z the ray direction goes from [

7150-569: The dark only if there is a light source directly between them and the reflector (e.g., via a flashlight they carry) or directly behind them (e.g., via a car approaching from behind). " Cat's eyes " are a particular type of retroreflector embedded in the road surface and are used mostly in the UK and parts of the United States . Corner reflectors are better at sending the light back to the source over long distances, while spheres are better at sending

7280-498: The differences in temperatures at different points on and below the surface, with the overall objective of creating a thermal profile of the Moon. ISRO scientist BH Darukesha said the high range of 70-degree-Celsius (158-degree-Fahrenheit) temperature near the surface was "not expected". On 29 August, ISRO reported that the laser-induced breakdown spectroscope (LIBS) instrument on board the Pragyan rover has "unambiguously" confirmed

7410-484: The distinction between primary and secondary stress is regarded as a phonetic or prosodic detail rather than a phonemic feature – primary stress is seen as an example of the predictable "tonic" stress that falls on the final stressed syllable of a prosodic unit . For more details of this analysis, see Stress and vowel reduction in English . For stress as a prosodic feature (emphasis of particular words within utterances), see § Prosodic stress below. Phonotactics

7540-651: The esteemed Aviation Week Laureates Award. Sripriya Ranganathan, Deputy Ambassador at the Indian Embassy in the US, accepted the award on behalf of ISRO. The Chandrayaan-3 mission team has raised the bar for space exploration, and for that reason, they have been awarded the prestigious 2024 John L. 'Jack' Swigert Jr. Award for Space Exploration. On 8 April 2024, at the opening ceremony of the annual Space Symposium in Colorado , India's Consul General D C Manjunath accepted

7670-411: The final stressed syllable in an intonation unit . This is said to be the origin of the distinction traditionally made at the lexical level between primary and secondary stress: when a word like admiration (traditionally transcribed as something like /ˌædmɪˈreɪʃən/ ) is spoken in isolation, or at the end of a sentence, the syllable ra (the final stressed syllable) is pronounced with greater force than

7800-663: The first and third syllables are unstressed, whereas the word or gani za tion has primary stress on the fourth syllable, secondary stress on the first, and the second, third, and fifth unstressed. This is often shown in pronunciation keys using the IPA symbols for primary and secondary stress (which are ˈ and ˌ respectively), placed before the syllables to which they apply. The two words just given may therefore be represented (in RP ) as /əˈmeɪzɪŋ/ and /ˌɔːɡənaɪˈzeɪʃən/ . Some analysts identify an additional level of stress ( tertiary stress). This

7930-536: The first country to touch down near the lunar south pole , at 69°S, the southernmost lunar landing on 23 August 2023 at 18:04 IST (12:33 UTC ), ISRO became the first agency to land on the south pole of the moon in its first attempt and overall the fourth space agency to successfully land on the Moon , after USSR , NASA and the CNSA . Chandrayaan-3 was launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre on 14 July 2023. The spacecraft entered lunar orbit on 5 August, and became

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8060-471: The first lander to touch down near the lunar south pole on 23 August at 18:03 IST (12:33 UTC ), making India the fourth country to successfully land on the Moon , and at 69°S, the southernmost lunar landing, until IM-1 landed further southwards in Malapert A crater on 22 February 2024. The lander was not built to withstand the cold temperatures of the lunar night, and sunset over the landing site ended

8190-410: The first time on the lunar surface, a laser beam from NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter was broadcast on 12 December 2023, and it was reflected back by a tiny NASA retroreflector on board the Vikram lander. The purpose of the experiment was to determine the retroreflector's surface location from the moon's orbit. The Chandrayaan-3 lander's Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) instrument began acting as

8320-402: The focal surface of the refractive element coincides with the reflective surface, typically a transparent sphere and (optionally) a spherical mirror. In the paraxial approximation , this effect can be achieved with lowest divergence with a single transparent sphere when the refractive index of the material is exactly one plus the refractive index n i of the medium from which the radiation

8450-528: The following except those that end with /s/ , /z/ , /ʃ/ , /ʒ/ , /tʃ/ or /dʒ/ can be extended with /s/ or /z/ representing the morpheme -s/-z. Similarly, most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with /t/ or /d/ can be extended with /t/ or /d/ representing the morpheme -t/-d. Wells (1990) argues that a variety of syllable codas are possible in English, even /ntr, ndr/ in words like entry /ˈɛntr.i/ and sundry /ˈsʌndr.i/ , with /tr, dr/ being treated as affricates along

8580-413: The following syllable. Thus the word leaving should be divided /ˈliː.vɪŋ/ rather than * /ˈliːv.ɪŋ/ , and hasty is /ˈheɪ.sti/ rather than * /ˈheɪs.ti/ or * /ˈheɪst.i/ . However, when such a division results in an onset cluster that is not allowed in English, the division must respect this. Thus if the word extra were divided * /ˈɛ.kstrə/ the resulting onset of the second syllable would be /kstr/ ,

8710-425: The foreign minister of Maldives , wrote "As a South Asian nation, and neighbour, we are proud of the successful landing of Chandrayaan 3 near the moon's south pole. This is a success for all of humanity! Opening new avenues for new areas of exploration." Bill Nelson , the administrator of NASA wrote "Congratulations ISRO on your successful Chandrayaan-3 lunar South Pole landing and congratulations to India on being

8840-421: The function of the eye is to form an image on the retina, an eye focused on a distant object has a focal surface that approximately follows the reflective tapetum lucidum structure, which is the condition required to form a good retroreflection. This type of retroreflector can consist of many small versions of these structures incorporated in a thin sheet or in paint. In the case of paint containing glass beads,

8970-416: The global elite." About results on water existence, "There was no word on the outcome of the rover searches for signs of frozen water on the lunar surface (...)". ISRO also released data from the observations made by ChaSTE (Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment), one of the four instruments present on the lander module. ChaSTE was designed to study the heat conductivity of the Moon's surface and measure

9100-460: The higher angle required to properly reflect the light. Raised reflectors are generally not used in areas that regularly experience snow during winter, as passing snowplows can tear them off the roadways. Stress on roadways caused by cars running over embedded objects also contributes to accelerated wear and pothole formation. Retroreflective road paint is thus very popular in Canada and parts of

9230-450: The initial funding of the project, amounting to ₹ 750 crore (US$ 90 million), out of which ₹ 600 crore (US$ 72 million) would be for meeting expenditure towards machinery, equipment, and other capital expenditure, while the remaining ₹ 150 crore (US$ 18 million) was sought for operating expenditure. Amit Sharma, CEO of an ISRO vendor, said, "With local sourcing of equipment and design elements, we are able to reduce

9360-666: The lander (the Intermodular Adapter Cone) on top. A few months after the conclusion of the lander portion of the mission, ISRO officials said that the propulsion module was equipped with two radioisotope heating units (RHU), designed and developed by BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) . RHUs keep spacecraft at their operational temperature using the decay of radioactive material , to generate electricity to power heaters. Chandrayaan-3 project director P Veeramuthuvel said ISRO may use nuclear resources to maintain instruments in future rovers. ISRO officials later said

9490-475: The landing as "a milestone in the onward march of our nation" and congratulated the ISRO team. Josef Aschbacher, director general of the European Space Agency , said: "Incredible! Congratulations to ISRO, Chandrayaan-3, and to all the people of India!! What a way to demonstrate new technologies AND achieve India's first soft landing on another celestial body. Well done, I am thoroughly impressed." Abdulla Shahid ,

9620-412: The last stressed syllable of the emphasized word, din ner. Retroreflector A retroreflector (sometimes called a retroflector or cataphote ) is a device or surface that reflects radiation (usually light ) back to its source with minimum scattering . This works at a wide range of angle of incidence , unlike a planar mirror , which does this only if the mirror is exactly perpendicular to

9750-564: The latter event is a subject of investigation, it is suspected to be a moonquake . Chandrayaan-3's landing live stream on ISRO's official YouTube channel received eight million concurrent viewers, which is the highest in YouTube's history for a live video. Congratulating the ISRO team behind the successful Chandrayaan-3 mission at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network in Bengaluru, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that

9880-401: The lenis stops and affricate /b, d, dʒ, ɡ/ by several phonetic features. English, much like other Germanic languages, has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes, and in addition the vowels of English differ considerably between dialects. Consequently, corresponding vowels may be transcribed with various symbols depending on the dialect under consideration. When considering English as

10010-426: The letters used to spell them (English orthography is not as strongly phonemic as that of many other languages). The number and distribution of phonemes in English vary from dialect to dialect, and also depend on the interpretation of the individual researcher. The number of consonant phonemes is generally put at 24 (or slightly more depending on the dialect). The number of vowels is subject to greater variation; in

10140-427: The light that their retina receives. Inspired by the natural world, the inventor of road 'cat's eyes' was Percy Shaw of Boothtown , Halifax, West Yorkshire , England. When the tram-lines were removed in the nearby suburb of Ambler Thorn, he realised that he had been using the polished steel rails to navigate at night. The name "cat's eye" comes from Shaw's inspiration for the device: the eyeshine reflecting from

10270-420: The light to a receiver somewhat off-axis from the source, as when the light from headlights is reflected into the driver's eyes . Retroreflectors can be embedded in the road (level with the road surface), or they can be raised above the road surface. Raised reflectors are visible for very long distances (typically 0.5–1 kilometer or more), while sunken reflectors are visible only at very close ranges due to

10400-411: The lines of /tʃ, dʒ/ . He argues that the traditional assumption that pre-vocalic consonants form a syllable with the following vowel is due to the influence of languages like French and Latin, where syllable structure is CVC.CVC regardless of stress placement. Disregarding such contentious cases, which do not occur at the ends of words, the following sequences can occur as the coda : For some speakers,

10530-439: The lunar surface and translating a similar distance laterally across the surface. The test demonstrated capabilities to be used in potential future sample return missions. The instruments and rover deployment ramp were retracted for the hop and redeployed afterwards. The propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 was moved out of lunar orbit to an orbit around Earth. Although the plan was to operate SHAPE for three months in lunar orbit, it

10660-493: The lunar surface varying from 5 to 30 million electrons per m. The evaluation pertains to early stages of the lunar day . The probe aims to explore the changes in the near-surface plasma environment throughout the duration of the lunar day. On the same day, ISRO released data from the ILSA payload on the lander, providing vibration measurements of the rover movement on 25 August, and a presumed natural event on 26 August. The cause of

10790-403: The lunar surface. ISRO's mission objectives for the Chandrayaan-3 mission are: Chandrayaan-3 comprises three main components: a propulsion module, lander module, and rover. The propulsion module carried the lander and rover configuration to a 100-kilometre (62 mi) lunar orbit. It was a box-like structure with a large solar panel mounted on one side and a cylindrical mounting structure for

10920-539: The main reasons for Chandrayaan-2's landing failure was altitude increase during the camera coasting phase. This was removed by allowing the lander to control altitude and thrust during all phases of descent. Altitude correction rate was increased from Chandrayaan-2's 10°/s to 25°/s with Chandrayaan-3. Additionally, the Chandrayaan-3 lander is equipped with a laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) to allow measuring altitude in three directions. The impact legs were made stronger compared to Chandrayaan-2 and instrumentation redundancy

11050-503: The mechanical accuracy of the construction. Retroreflectors are devices that operate by returning light back to the light source along the same light direction. The coefficient of luminous intensity, R I , is the measure of a reflector performance, which is defined as the ratio of the strength of the reflected light (luminous intensity) to the amount of light that falls on the reflector (normal illuminance). A reflector appears brighter as its R I value increases. The R I value of

11180-415: The middle belongs to both syllables, and is described as ambisyllabic . In this way, it is possible to suggest an analysis of hurry that comprises the syllables /hʌr/ and /ri/ , the medial /r/ being ambisyllabic. Where the division coincides with a word boundary, or the boundary between elements of a compound word, it is not usual in the case of dictionaries to insist on the maximal onset principle in

11310-455: The most salient, reduced syllables the least, and full unstressed vowels ("secondary stress") intermediate. But there are lexical differences as well, frequently but not exclusively with compound words. For example, in dolphin and selfish, Wells argues that the stressed syllable ends in /lf/ , but in shellfish, the /f/ belongs with the following syllable: /ˈdɒlf.ɪn, ˈself.ɪʃ/ → [ˈdɒlfɪ̈n, ˈselfɪ̈ʃ] , but /ˈʃel.fɪʃ/ → [ˈʃelˑfɪʃ] , where

11440-431: The new MUTCD language describes methods that agencies can use to maintain traffic sign retroreflectivity at or above the minimum levels. In Canada , aerodrome lighting can be replaced by appropriately colored retroreflectors, the most important of which are the white retroreflectors that delineate the runway edges, and must be seen by aircraft equipped with landing lights up to 2 nautical miles away. Retroflective tape

11570-438: The noun in crease and the verb in crease are distinguished by the positioning of the stress on the first syllable in the former, and on the second syllable in the latter. (See initial-stress-derived noun .) Stressed syllables in English are louder than non-stressed syllables, as well as being longer and having a higher pitch. In traditional approaches, in any English word consisting of more than one syllable , each syllable

11700-448: The nuclei of unstressed syllables. These include: Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is a significant feature of English. Syllables of the types listed above often correspond to a syllable containing a different vowel ("full vowel") used in other forms of the same morpheme where that syllable is stressed. For example, the first o in photograph , being stressed, is pronounced with the GOAT vowel, but in photography , where it

11830-434: The observation angle and entrance angle between the automobile's headlights, bicycle, and driver. The observation angle is the angle formed by the light beam and the driver's line of sight. Observation angle is a function of the distance between the headlights and the driver's eye, and the distance to the reflector. Traffic engineers use an observation angle of 0.2 degrees to simulate a reflector target about 800 feet in front of

11960-472: The observer when it is directly in line with the light source. The brightness of a reflector is also a function of the distance between the light source and the reflector. At a given observation angle, as the distance between the light source and the reflector decreases, the light that falls on the reflector increases. This increases the amount of light returned to the observer and the reflector appears brighter. Retroreflection (sometimes called retroflection)

12090-487: The occasion of the successful landing of the Indian space station Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon near its South Pole. This is a big step forward in space exploration and certainly a testament to the impressive progress made by India in the area of science and technology". Nepal prime minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal said "I congratulate Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi ji and ISRO team of India on successful landing of Chandrayan-3 in

12220-423: The on-board electronics were not designed to withstand the −120 °C (−184 °F) nighttime temperatures on the Moon. On 22 September, the lander and rover missed their wake-up calls, and by 28 September neither had responded, diminishing hopes for further surface operations. Hop experiment Vikram fired its engines for a brief 'hop' on the lunar surface on 3 September, ascending 40 cm (16 in) off

12350-416: The outer cube surfaces. The second form uses mutually perpendicular flat mirrors bracketing an air space. These two types have similar optical properties. A large relatively thin retroreflector can be formed by combining many small corner reflectors, using the standard hexagonal tiling . Another common type of retroreflector consists of refracting optical elements with a reflective surface, arranged so that

12480-465: The paint adheres the beads to the surface where retroreflection is required and the beads protrude, their diameter being about twice the thickness of the paint. A third, much less common way of producing a retroreflector is to use the nonlinear optical phenomenon of phase conjugation . This technique is used in advanced optical systems such as high-power lasers and optical transmission lines . Phase-conjugate mirrors reflect an incoming wave so that

12610-750: The points listed below the following tables). The symbols given in the table are traditional but redirect to their modern implementation. The differences between these tables can be explained as follows: Other points to be noted are these: Listed here are some of the significant cases of allophony of vowels found within standard English dialects. Unstressed syllables in English may contain almost any vowel, but in practice vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables tend to use different inventories of phonemes. In particular, long vowels are used less often in unstressed syllables than stressed syllables. Additionally there are certain sounds—characterized by central position and weakness—that are particularly often found as

12740-507: The presence of sulfur in the lunar surface near the south pole, through "first-ever in-situ measurements". The presence of sulfur on the Moon has been known before; however, it was detected for the first time at the south pole by the rover. Noah Petro, a project scientist at NASA, while speaking to the BBC , stated that while sulfur has been known to be in the lunar regolith from Apollo program samples, he described Pragyan ' s findings as

12870-539: The price considerably." Confirming the existence of the project, ISRO's former chairman K. Sivan stated that the estimated cost would be around ₹ 615 crore (equivalent to ₹ 724 crore or US$ 87 million in 2023). The Associated Press , while commenting on the success of the mission, said, "The successful mission showcases India's rising standing as a technology and space powerhouse and dovetails with Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's desire to project an image of an ascendant country asserting its place among

13000-647: The prize on behalf of the Indian Space Research Organization. International Phonetic Alphabet for English Phonological analysis of English often concentrates on prestige or standard accents, such as Received Pronunciation for England , General American for the United States , and General Australian for Australia . Nevertheless, many other dialects of English are spoken, which have developed differently from these standardized accents, particularly regional dialects. Descriptions of standardized reference accents provide only

13130-561: The process of dividing continuous speech into discrete syllables, a process in which the position of a syllable division is not always easy to decide upon. Most languages of the world syllabify CVCV and CVCCV sequences as /CV.CV/ and /CVC.CV/ or /CV.CCV/ , with consonants preferentially acting as the onset of a syllable containing the following vowel. According to one view, English is unusual in this regard, in that stressed syllables attract following consonants, so that ˈCVCV and ˈCVCCV syllabify as /ˈCVC.V/ and /ˈCVCC.V/ , as long as

13260-509: The project director of the mission said, "It's a great moment of happiness. On behalf of the team it gives me immense satisfaction on achieving this goal as the Project Director of the mission. The entire mission operations right from launch till landing happened flawlessly as per the timeline". S. Mohana Kumar, the mission director, said that Chandrayaan-3 was a "team effort". Meanwhile, former ISRO chief K Sivan , under whose tenure

13390-408: The reflectance, but this implies that the retroreflection only works when the sphere is oriented in a particular direction. An alternative form of the cat's eye retroreflector uses a normal lens focused onto a curved mirror rather than a transparent sphere, though this type is much more limited in the range of incident angles that it retroreflects. The term cat's eye derives from the resemblance of

13520-404: The reflected wave exactly follows the path it has previously taken, and require a comparatively expensive and complex apparatus, as well as large quantities of power (as nonlinear optical processes can be efficient only at high enough intensities). However, phase-conjugate mirrors have an inherently much greater accuracy in the direction of the retroreflection, which in passive elements is limited by

13650-452: The reflector as shown in Figure 2 form the entrance angle. The entrance angle is a function of the orientation of the reflector to the light source. For example, the entrance angle between an automobile approaching a bicycle at an intersection 90 degrees apart is larger than the entrance angle for a bicycle directly in front of an automobile on a straight road. The reflector appears brightest to

13780-427: The reflector is a function of the color, size, and condition of the reflector. Clear or white reflectors are the most efficient, and appear brighter than other colors. The surface area of the reflector is proportional to the R I value, which increases as the reflective surface increases. The R I value is also a function of the spatial geometry between the observer, light source, and reflector. Figures 1 and 2 show

13910-542: The retroreflectors have been used again. Lunokhod 2's array continues to return signals to Earth. Even under good viewing conditions, only a single reflected photon is received every few seconds. This makes the job of filtering laser-generated photons from naturally occurring photons challenging. Vikram lander of Chandrayaan-3 left Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) instrument supplied by NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center as part of international collaboration with ISRO . On 12 December 2023, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

14040-440: The rover was put into sleep mode after it had completed all of its assignments. Its batteries were charged and receiver left on, according to ISRO, in preparation for the impending lunar night. "The rover's payloads are turned off and the data it collected has been transmitted to Earth via the lander", the statement said. Chandrayaan-3's lander and rover were expected to operate only for one lunar daylight period, or 14 Earth days, and

14170-432: The scientists of ISRO on the successful landing and termed it a "historic" moment. He wrote "This is historical. It's a significant achievement for the country. It's a matter of pride for all of us. The success of Chandrayaan-3 is a result of the hard work of all citizens, ISRO scientists, engineers, and employees. Congratulations to everyone involved. Bharat Mata ki jai." DY Chandrachud , the chief justice of India hailed

14300-495: The second /d/ in hundred pounds does not entirely assimilate to a labial place of articulation, rather the labial gesture co-occurs with the alveolar one; the "missing" [t] in jumped back may still be articulated, though not heard. Division into syllables is a difficult area, and different theories have been proposed. A widely accepted approach is the maximal onset principle: this states that, subject to certain constraints, any consonants in between vowels should be assigned to

14430-462: The spherical cat's eye can be solved in various ways, one being a spherically symmetrical index gradient within the sphere, such as in the Luneburg lens design. Practically, this can be approximated by a concentric sphere system. Because the back-side reflection for an uncoated sphere is imperfect, it is fairly common to add a metallic coating to the back half of retroreflective spheres to increase

14560-417: The surface mission twelve days after landing. The propulsion module, still operational, transited back to a high Earth orbit from lunar orbit on 22 November 2023 for continued scientific observations of Earth. It operated until 22 August 2024. In 22 July 2019, ISRO launched Chandrayaan-2 on board a Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3) launch vehicle consisting of an orbiter , a lander and a rover . The lander

14690-418: The surface of the moon today and unleashing of a historic achievement in science and space technology." The Exploration Museum has bestowed upon ISRO the esteemed Leif Erikson Lunar Prize in honor of the space agency's resolute dedication and noteworthy advancements in lunar exploration in 2023. In recognition of its accomplishments with the historic Chandrayaan-3 mission in 2023, ISRO has been bestowed with

14820-429: The syllable ad , although when the word is not pronounced with this final intonation there may be no difference between the levels of stress of these two syllables. Prosodic stress can shift for various pragmatic functions, such as focus or contrast. For instance, in the dialogue Is it brunch tomorrow? No, it's dinner tomorrow , the extra stress shifts from the last stressed syllable of the sentence, to mor row , to

14950-467: The syllable onset and up to four consonants in the syllable coda, giving a general syllable structure of (C) V(C) , a potential example being strengths /strɛŋkθs/ (although this word has variant pronunciations with only 3 coda consonants, such as /strɛŋθs/ ). A five-consonant coda may occur in the word angsts , but this is a highly exceptional case, as the word is both infrequent and not always pronounced with five final segments (it can be analyzed as

15080-498: The system presented on this page there are 20–25 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation , 14–16 in General American and 19–21 in Australian English . The pronunciation keys used in dictionaries generally contain a slightly greater number of symbols than this, to take account of certain sounds used in foreign words and certain noticeable distinctions that may not be—strictly speaking—phonemic. The following table shows

15210-423: The tip of the tongue touching or approaching the roof of the mouth, though some speakers produce them laminally , i.e. with the blade of the tongue. The following table shows typical examples of the occurrence of the above consonant phonemes in words, using minimal pairs where possible. In most dialects, the fortis stops and affricate /p, t, tʃ, k/ have various different allophones, and are distinguished from

15340-448: The touchdown point of the Vikram lander would henceforth be known as Statio Shiv Shakti . He further declared 23 August, the day the Vikram lander landed on the Moon, as National Space Day . ISRO chief S. Somanath proclaimed "India is on the Moon" after the successful touchdown. "We learnt a lot from our failure and corrected it. It's now 14 days of work and we have to conduct experiments," he told India Today . P Veeramuthuvel ,

15470-432: The vowel phonemes of three standard varieties of English. The notation system used here for Received Pronunciation (RP) is fairly standard; the others less so. The feature descriptions given here (front, close, etc.) are abstracted somewhat; the actual pronunciations of these vowels are somewhat more accurately conveyed by the IPA symbols used (see Vowel for a chart indicating the meanings of these symbols; though note also

15600-443: The wave front, having a zero angle of incidence. Being directed, the retroflector's reflection is brighter than that of a diffuse reflector . Corner reflectors and cat's eye reflectors are the most used kinds. There are several ways to obtain retroreflection: A set of three mutually perpendicular reflective surfaces, placed to form the internal corner of a cube, work as a retroreflector. The three corresponding normal vectors of

15730-481: Was 7.2 km (4.5 miles) above the surface; it maintained this altitude for about 10 seconds, then stabilized itself using eight smaller thrusters and rotated from a horizontal to a vertical position while continuing its descent. It then used two of its four engines to slow its descent to roughly 150 metres (490 ft); it hovered there for about 30 seconds and located an optimal landing spot before continuing downward and touching down at 12:33 UTC . On 3 September,

15860-523: Was carried out from the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bengaluru . On 17 August, the Vikram lander separated from the propulsion module to begin landing operations. On 23 August 2023, as the lander approached the low point of its orbit, its four engines fired as a braking manoeuvre at 30 kilometres (19 mi) above the Moon's surface. After 11.5 minutes, the lander

15990-478: Was decided to utilise over 100   kg of fuel left in the PM after one month of operation to derive additional information for future lunar missions, and determine strategies for sample return missions and gravity-assisted flyby missions. ISRO's flight dynamics team had developed software to be validated through these return manoeuvres. The first lunar bound apogee raising manoeuvre was executed on 9 October 2023 raising

16120-552: Was improved. It targeted a more precise 16 km (6.2 sq mi) landing region based on images provided by the Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) onboard Chandrayaan-2's orbiter. ISRO improved the structural rigidity, increased polling in instruments, increased data frequency and transmission, and added additional multiple contingency systems to improve lander survivability in the event of failure during descent and landing. The Pragyan rover

16250-550: Was launched aboard an LVM3 -M4 rocket on 14 July 2023, at 09:05 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre Second Launch Pad in Sriharikota , Andhra Pradesh , India, entering an Earth parking orbit with a perigee of 170 km (106 mi) and an apogee of 36,500 km (22,680 mi). On 15 November 2023, the Cryogenic Upper Stage ( C25 ) of the rocket ( NORAD ID: 57321) made an uncontrolled re-entry into

16380-636: Was launched on February 13, 2012. (See also: List of laser ranging satellites .) Other satellites include retroreflectors for orbit calibration and orbit determination, such as in satellite navigation (e.g., all Galileo satellites , most GLONASS satellites , IRNSS satellites , BeiDou , QZSS , and two GPS satellites ) as well as in satellite gravimetry ( GOCE ) satellite altimetry (e.g., TOPEX/Poseidon , Sentinel-3 ). Retroreflectors can also be used for inter-satellite laser ranging instead of ground-tracking (e.g., GRACE-FO ). The BLITS (Ball Lens In The Space) spherical retroreflector satellite

16510-758: Was placed into orbit as part of a September 2009 Soyuz launch by the Federal Space Agency of Russia with the assistance of the International Laser Ranging Service , an independent body originally organized by the International Association of Geodesy , the International Astronomical Union , and international committees. The ILRS central bureau is located at the United States' Goddard Space Flight Center . The reflector,

16640-477: Was responsible for the soft landing on the Moon. It is also box-shaped, with four landing legs and four landing thrusters capable of producing 800 newtons of thrust each. It carried the rover and had various scientific instruments to perform on-site analysis. The lander has four variable-thrust engines with slew rate changing capabilities, unlike Chandrayaan-2's lander, which had five, with the fifth one being centrally mounted and capable only of fixed thrust. One of

16770-534: Was scheduled to touch down on the lunar surface on 6 September 2019 to deploy the Pragyan rover . The lander lost contact with mission control, deviated from its intended trajectory while attempting to land near the lunar south pole, and crashed. The lunar south pole region holds particular interest for scientific exploration. Studies show large amounts of ice there. The ice could contain solid-state compounds that would normally melt under warmer conditions elsewhere on

16900-840: Was successfully able to detect transmitted laser pulses from Vikram lander. A similar device, the Laser Retroreflector Array (LaRA), has been incorporated in the Mars Perseverance rover . The retroreflector was designed by the National Institute for Nuclear Physics of Italy, which built the instrument on behalf of the Italian Space Agency . Many artificial satellites carry retroreflectors so they can be tracked from ground stations . Some satellites were built solely for laser ranging. LAGEOS , or Laser Geodynamics Satellites, are

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