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65-694: The Charleston Mercury was a secessionist newspaper in Charleston, South Carolina , founded by Henry L. Pinckney in 1819. He was its sole editor for fifteen years. It ceased publication with the Union Army occupation of Charleston in February 1865. After the American Civil War , publication resumed in November 1866 before the paper closed permanently two years later in 1868. During

130-645: A 1933 referendum for secession from the Federation of Australia passed with a two-thirds majority. The referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament , which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution . The Principality of Hutt River claimed to have seceded from Australia in 1970, although its status was not recognised by Australia or any other country. After being liberated by

195-815: A Bangabhumi /separate homeland for Bengali Hindus in the People's Republic of Bangladesh . The group is led by Kalidas Baidya. The Shanti Bahini ( Bengali : শান্তি বাহিনী , "Peace Force") is the name of the military wing of the Parbatya Chattagram Jana Sanghati Samiti - the United People's Party of the Chittagong Hill Tracts aims are to create an indigenous Buddhist orientated Chacomas state within SE Bangladesh . On August 25, 1830, during

260-803: A case that the moral status of the seceding state is unrelated to the issue of secession itself. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason ("Choice Theory") while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices ("Just Cause Theory"). Some theories do both. A list of justifications may be presented supporting the right to secede, as described by Allen Buchanan, Robert McGee, Anthony Birch , Jane Jacobs , Frances Kendall and Leon Louw , Leopold Kohr , Kirkpatrick Sale , Donald W. Livingston and various authors in David Gordon's "Secession, State and Liberty", includes: Political scientist Aleksander Pavkovic describes five justifications for

325-552: A clear majority of the province and a constitutional amendment confirmed by all participants in the Canadian federation could allow secession. The European Union is not a sovereign state but an association of sovereign states formed by treaty; as such, leaving it, which is possible by simply denouncing the treaty, is not secession. Nonetheless, the 2003 draft of the European Union Constitution allowed for

390-470: A concise overview of the operation of British political institutions in the late 20th century and was republished in 10 editions. In 1970, Birch became chair of the Politics Department at Exeter University . During this decade, his focus shifted to questions of nationalism and regional integration, a relevant issue at the time when the question of the devolution of power to Scotland and Wales

455-645: A general right of secession within liberal political theory: Allen Buchanan, who supports secession under limited circumstances, lists arguments that might be used against secession: Secession theorists have described a number of ways in which a political entity (city, county, canton, state) can secede from the larger or original state: Most sovereign states do not recognize the right to self-determination through secession in their constitutions. Many expressly forbid it. However, there are several existing models of self-determination through greater autonomy and through secession. In liberal constitutional democracies

520-562: A military crackdown, including cutting the internet in the English-speaking regions. In response, the people of Southern Cameroon declared on October 1, 2017, the restoration of their UN state of Southern Cameroons, which they called the " Federal Republic of Ambazonia ". Throughout Canada's history, there has been tension between English-speaking and French-speaking Canadians . Under the Constitutional Act of 1791 ,

585-586: A month beforehand, tensions had escalated into open warfare between separatists and the Cameroon Armed Forces . The conflict, known as the "Anglophone Crisis", is deeply rooted in the October 1, 1961 incomplete decolonization of the former British Southern Cameroons (UNGA Resolution 1608). On January 1, 1960, French Cameroon was granted independence from France as the Republic of Cameroon and

650-610: A part of China but rather an occupied country, so it does not view independence from China as "secession" but rather "decolonization". The Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong has a secessionist movement in the city that the Chinese Communist Party has placed on the national security agenda in 2017 which is called the Hong Kong independence movement . In 1960, the State of Katanga declared independence from

715-440: A range of different forms of indigenous sovereignty and have the right of self-determination , but under current understanding of international law they have a mere "remedial" right to secession in extreme cases of abuse of their rights, because independence and sovereign statehood is a territorial and diplomatic claim and not one of self-determination and self-government , respectively, generally leaving rights to secession to

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780-695: A study of local politics in a town located in Derbyshire . The study was influenced by the contemporaneous studies of local power politics in the United States. The book viewed Glossop as a microcosm of wider changes in British politics and society in the 1950s. In a review of this work, the American Robert A. Dahl, a pioneer in studies of community power politics, wrote: "Anyone interested in the political life of modern communities will find this

845-793: A useful book, and an American will not be disappointed in his search for significant parallels and differences". This work cemented Birch's reputation as a creative and eclectic scholar. In 1961, Birch worked at the University of Hull in the new Department of Political Studies. While working in the department, he appointed a number of young scholars, many of whom went on to have influential careers as political scientists, including: Robert Benewick, Robert Berki , Howard Elcock, Dennis Kavanagh , Stephen Kirby, Michael Leifer , Jeremy Noakes, Bhikhu Parekh , and (Lord) Trevor Smith . While at Hull, Birch published what has become his most widely cited work, Representative and Responsible Government: An Essay on

910-499: A way which could spark off the more advanced student'. In a review of this book, Geoffrey Marshall stated: "Professor Birch's book is of a kind which is rare and extremely useful". Bhikhu Parekh commented that it is: "Pioneered a way of looking at democracy, combining both abstract theory and political rhetoric". In 1967, Birch published his third book, The British System of Government (London: Allen and Unwin, 1967, first edition), which became essential reading for anyone looking for

975-405: Is no consensus on the definition of political secession despite many political theories on the subject. According to the 2017 book Secession and Security, by political scientist Ahsan Butt , states respond violently to secessionist movements if the potential state poses a greater threat than the would-be secessionist movement. States perceive a future war with a potential new state as likely if

1040-655: The Commonwealth of Australia only upon vote of a majority of the country as a whole; the previous two-thirds majority vote for secession via referendum in Western Australia was insufficient. The Chinese Communist Party followed the Soviet Union in including the right of secession in its 1931 constitution in order to entice ethnic nationalities and Tibet into joining. However, the Party eliminated

1105-836: The Democratic Republic of the Congo . United Nations troops crushed it in Operation Grand Slam . In 1974, Greek irredentists launched a coup d'état in Cyprus , in an attempt to annex the island with Greece . Almost immediately, the Turkish Army invaded northern Cyprus to protect the interests of the ethnic Turkish minority , who in the following year formed the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus and in 1983 declared independence as

1170-571: The International Monetary Fund , World Bank , and the United Nations . Alberto Alesina and Enrico Spolaore argue that greater levels of free trade and peace have reduced the benefits of being part of a larger state, thus motivating nations within larger states to seek secession. Woodrow Wilson 's proclamations on self-determination in 1918 created a surge in secessionist demands. The political philosophy of

1235-576: The Province of Quebec (including parts of what are today Quebec , Ontario and Newfoundland and Labrador ) was divided in two: Lower Canada (which retained French law and institutions and is now part of the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador ) and Upper Canada (a new colony intended to accommodate the many new English-speaking settlers, including the United Empire Loyalists , and now part of Ontario ). The intent

1300-619: The Quebec sovereignty movement in the latter half of the 20th century. Other occasional secessionist movements have included anti-Confederation movements in the 19th century Atlantic Canada (see Anti-Confederation Party ), the North-West Rebellion of 1885, and various small separatist movements in Alberta particularly (see Alberta separatism ) and Western Canada generally (see, for example, Western Canada Concept ). After

1365-564: The Red Army and the U.S. Army , Austria seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27, 1945. This took place after seven years under Nazi rule , which began with the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. The secession only took place once Nazi Germany had been defeated by the Allies. The Banga Sena ( Bangabhumi ) is a separatist Hindu organisation, which supports the making of

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1430-699: The Treaty of Lisbon entered into force on 1   December 2009, no provision in the treaties or law of the European Union outlined the ability of a state to voluntarily withdraw from the EU. The European Constitution did propose such a provision and, after the failure to ratify the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe , that provision was then included in the Lisbon Treaty. The treaty introduced an exit clause for members who wish to withdraw from

1495-590: The Treaty on European Union included Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union , establishing a mechanism for withdrawal from the EU. As a result of the successful constitutional referendum held in 2003, every municipality in the Principality of Liechtenstein has the right to secede from the Principality by a vote of a majority of the citizens residing in that municipality. Indigenous peoples have

1560-555: The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus , recognized only by Turkey . The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste (also known as East Timor) has been described as having "seceded" from Indonesia . After Portuguese sovereignty was terminated in 1975, East Timor was occupied by Indonesia . However, the United Nations and the International Court of Justice refused to recognize this incorporation. Therefore,

1625-596: The United Provinces , which led to a stagnated war between both, as they were both weakened, lacking manpower and politically fragile. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay 's independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River. Three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará , Bahia, and Maranhão, where

1690-648: The University College, Nottingham graduating with first class honors in 1945. He was unable to serve in the Second World War due to poor health. After the war, he joined the Board of Trade as an assistant principal and remained there for two years. His passion for scholarship motivated him to enroll in the London School of Economics to pursue a PhD. under Harold Laski . His doctoral work

1755-525: The voluntary withdrawal of member states from the union , although the representatives of the member-state which wanted to leave could not participate in the withdrawal discussions of the European Council or of the Council of Ministers. There was much discussion about such self-determination by minorities before the final document underwent the unsuccessful ratification process in 2005. In 2007

1820-495: The " Union of Myanmar "). Burma still allows "local autonomy under central leadership". As of 1996, the constitutions of Austria , Ethiopia , France , and Saint Kitts and Nevis have express or implied rights to secession. Switzerland allows for the secession from current and the creation of new cantons . In the case of proposed Quebec separation from Canada , the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 ruled that only both

1885-587: The 1823 collapse of the First Mexican Empire , the former Captaincy-General of Guatemala was organized into a new Federal Republic of Central America . In 1838, Nicaragua seceded. The Federal Republic was formally dissolved in 1840, all but one of the states having seceded amidst general disorder. Taiwan has long sought sovereignty from mainland China. It maintains its own currency and military, despite no longer being recognized internationally. The Anti-Secession Law , passed in 2005, formalized

1950-693: The 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland (with Bowen as a potential colonial capital) in the 1870s. Other secession (or territorial separation) movements arose and these advocated the secession of New England in northern central New South Wales , Deniliquin in the Riverina district also in NSW, and Mount Gambier in the eastern part of South Australia . Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia (WA), where

2015-489: The 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales (NSW) was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria (Vic) was formed in 1851 and Queensland (Qld) in 1859. However, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century; particularly in central Queensland (centered in Rockhampton ) in

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2080-622: The American Civil War, the paper was "strongly secessionist ", calling upon South Carolinian men to take up arms to defend the South. Its owner, Robert Barnwell Rhett , had two plantations and 190 enslaved persons. The paper was critical of Davis and Confederate generals, in contrast with its pro-Davis competitor the Charleston Courier . Rhett's son R. Barnwell Rhett Jr. was the editor. Humorist George William Bagby

2145-478: The Constitution (London: Allen and Unwin, 1964). This text examines the tensions between responsibility and representation in the Constitution in the British historical tradition and in 18th and 19th century political thought. 'The book is about governmental theory but its conceptual framework never gets between the reader and the examples. It could be given painlessly to relative beginners, but raises issues in

2210-549: The Department of Political Science at the University of Victoria on Vancouver Island, British Columbia where he worked and taught until his retirement in 1989. It was in Victoria where he wrote his final two works, Nationalism and National Integration (New York: Routledge, 1989) and The Concepts and Theories of Modern Democracy (London: Routledge, 1993) which was republished as a third edition in 2007. By this time, Birch

2275-673: The Dutch West India Company and tried to secede from the Portuguese and Brazilian Empires. In each attempt, the rebels were crushed, the leaders shot and their territory divided. Nevertheless, they kept revolting until Pernambuco's territory was a little fraction of what it was before. In the Ragamuffin War , the Province of Rio Grande do Sul was undergoing a (at that time common) liberal vs conservative "cold" war. After Emperor Pedro II of Brazil favoured

2340-539: The Empire agreed to aid Santa Catarina's economy by taxing Argentina 's products (like dry meat), the rebels reunited with the Empire and joined its military ranks. In modern times, the South Region of Brazil has been the centre of a secessionist movement led by an organization called The South is My Country since the 1990s. Reasons cited for Southern Brazil's secession movement are taxation, due to it being one of

2405-528: The European Union on January 31, 2020. This is informally known as Brexit . Finland successfully and peacefully seceded from the newly-formed and unstable Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in 1917. The latter was led by Lenin , who had sought refuge in Finland during the Russian Revolution . Unsuccessful attempts at greater autonomy or peaceful secession had already been made during

2470-482: The Republic of Cameroon, but they did so without a formal Treaty of Union on record at the UN. In 1972, Cameroon used its majority population to abolish the federation and implement a system which resulted in the occupation of the former South Cameroons territory by French-speaking Cameroon administrators. In 1984, Cameroon heightened tensions by returning to its name at independence, "Republic of Cameroun", which did not include

2535-663: The Union. This formalised the procedure by stating that a member state may notify the European Council that it wishes to withdraw, upon which withdrawal negotiations begin; if no other agreement is reached, the treaty ceases to apply to the withdrawing state two years after such notification. On June 23, 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union in a non-binding referendum, and finally left

2600-537: The United States (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955). Birch took up his first teaching position in 1947 at the University of Manchester , first as a lecturer in the Economics Department, and later in the new Department of Government, established by W.J.M. (Bill) Mackenzie. In 1959, he published his second book, Small Town Politics: A Study of Political Life in Glossop (London: Oxford University Press),

2665-405: The borders of previous administrative units. Several scholars argue that changes in the international system have made it easier for small states to survive and prosper. Tanisha Fazal and Ryan Griffiths link increased numbers of secessions to an international system that is more favorable for new states. For example, new states can obtain assistance from international organizations such as

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2730-532: The conservatives, the liberals took the Capital and declared an independent Republic , fighting their way to the Province of Santa Catarina and declaring the Juliana Republic . Eventually they were slowly forced back, and made a reunification peace with the Empire. This was not considered a secessionist war, even if it could have resulted in an independent republic if the Empire had been defeated. After

2795-530: The ethnic group driving the secessionist struggle has deep identity division with the central state, and if the regional neighborhood is violent and unstable. According to political scientist Bridget L. Coggins, the academic literature contains four potential explanations for the drastic increase in secessions during the 20th century: Other scholars have linked secession to resource discoveries and extraction. David B. Carter, H. E. Goemans, and Ryan Griffiths find that border changes among states tend to conform to

2860-519: The internal legislation of sovereign states. National secessionist movements advocate for the claim that a population within a state is a nation that has the right to form its own nation-state. Movements that work towards political secession may describe themselves as being autonomy , separatist , independence , self-determination , partition , devolution , decentralization , sovereignty , self-governance or decolonization movements instead of, or in addition to, being secession movements. During

2925-581: The long-standing policy of the People's Republic of China to use military means against Taiwan independence in the event peaceful means become otherwise impossible. Western regions of Xinjiang ( East Turkistan ) and Tibet are the focus of secessionist calls by the Tibetan independence movement and East Turkestan Independence Movement . The East Turkistan Government in Exile does not view East Turkistan as

2990-414: The major political science journals, including World Politics , the British Journal of Political Science , Government and Opposition , and Political Studies . Birch was president of the Political Studies Association from 1972 to 1975 and vice-president of the International Political Science Association from 1973 to 1976. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1988, and

3055-461: The most influential commentaries on British politics published in the 1960s. They challenged the more quantitative and behavioral approaches that were beginning to dominate political science". Lord Trevor Smith praised him as: "one of the most productive and innovative British political scientists in the past sixty years. Although widely read and respected, he never received the recognition that he merited. Invariably his publications were pioneering; he

3120-399: The people were unhappy with the Empire (these provinces were Portuguese bastions in the Independence War). The Malê Revolt , in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt. These three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. The Pernambuco was one of the most nativist of all Brazilian regions. Over a series of five revolts (1645–1654, 1710, 1817, 1824, 1848), the province ousted

3185-450: The preceding Russian Empire but had been denied by the Russian emperor. However, with the country still at war and under great pressure, Lenin allowed Finland to secede. Its peripheral location made it difficult to defend and less strategically important than Russia's other territories, so he conceded sovereignty to the Finns rather than try to defend it. Anthony Birch Anthony Harold Birch (17 February 1924 – 13 December 2014)

3250-422: The principle of majority rule has dictated whether a minority can secede. In the United States Abraham Lincoln acknowledged that secession might be possible through amending the United States Constitution . The Supreme Court in Texas v. White held secession could occur "through revolution, or through consent of the States". The British Parliament in 1933 held that Western Australia could secede from

3315-438: The reign of William I , the nationalistic opera La muette de Portici was performed in Brussels . Soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Kingdom of the Netherlands . In 1825, soon after the Empire of Brazil managed to defeat the Cortes-Gerais and the Portuguese Empire in an Independence War , the Platinean nationalists in Cisplatina declared independence and joined

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3380-451: The rest of Brazil is a multicultural melting pot . The South Region in 2016 voted in an unofficial referendum called "Plebisul" in which 95% of voters supported secession and the creation of an independent South Region. There is also a push for secession movement in the state of São Paulo , which seeks to become a country independent from the rest of Brazil. In October 2017, Ambazonia declared its independence from Cameroon . Less than

3445-516: The resulting civil war and eventual 1999 East Timorese vote for complete separation are better described as an independence movement. Following the May 1991 victory of Eritrean People's Liberation Front forces against the communist Derg regime during the Eritrean War of Independence , Eritrea (formerly known as " Medri Bahri ") gained de facto independence from Ethiopia. Following the United Nations observation 1993 Eritrean independence referendum , Eritrea gained de jure independence. Before

3510-414: The right to secession in later years, and had anti-secession clause written into the Constitution before and after the founding the People's Republic of China . The 1947 Constitution of the Union of Burma contained an express state right to secede from the union under a number of procedural conditions. It was eliminated in the 1974 constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma (officially

3575-729: The rights and moral justification for secession began to develop as recently as the 1980s. American philosopher Allen Buchanan offered the first systematic account of the subject in the 1990s and contributed to the normative classification of the literature on secession. In his 1991 book Secession: The Morality of Political Divorce From Fort Sumter to Lithuania and Quebec , Buchanan outlined limited rights to secession under certain circumstances, mostly related to oppression by people of other ethnic or racial groups, and especially those previously conquered by other people. In his collection of essays from secession scholars, Secession, State, and Liberty , professor David Gordon challenges Buchanan, making

3640-413: The territory of the former British Southern Cameroons or Ambazonia. For more than fifty years the English-speaking people of the Former British Southern Cameroons made multiple attempts both nationally and internationally to get the Cameroon government to address these issues and possibly return to the previously agreed federation at independence. In 2016, after all these attempts failed, Cameroon engaged in

3705-476: The wealthiest regions in the country; political disputes with the northernmost states of Brazil; 2016 scandal revolving around the Workers' Party 's involvement in a kickback scheme with state-owned oil company Petrobras ; and the impeachment of then- President Dilma Rousseff . Additionally, there is an ethnic divide as the South Region is predominately European , populated primarily by Germans , Italians , Portuguese and other European groups. In contrast,

3770-404: Was a Richmond, Virginia correspondent of the Charleston Mercury during the Civil War era and "covered the politics of the war and made a reputation for Hermes, his pen name, as a fearless writer who would criticize Confederate General Robert E. Lee as easily as Confederate President Jefferson Davis ". Secession Notable examples of secession, and secession attempts, include: There

3835-536: Was a British scholar and an expert in British politics and comparative politics . He was a leading figure in the development of Britain's distinctive school of political science. Political historians have cited his influential works on representation , the British government , federalism , nationalism , and national integration extensively. Birch was born in North London and attended the William Ellis Grammar School in Gospel Oak . After graduating from William Ellis Grammar School, he earned an economics degree at

3900-501: Was a comparative study of federalism and public finance in Canada, Australia, and the United States. He obtained his doctorate in 1951. Shortly thereafter, he was awarded a scholarship from the Commonwealth Fund to pursue further studies in the United States as a Harkness Fellow at Harvard University and the University of Chicago . He subsequently revised his dissertation and it was published in 1955 in his first book: Federalism, Finance and Social Legislation in Canada, Australia and

3965-413: Was admitted into the United Nations. The more advanced democratic and self-ruling people of British Cameroon were instead limited to two choices. Through a UN plebiscite , they were directed to either join the federation of Nigeria or the independent Republic of Cameroon as a federation of two equal states. While the Northern Cameroons voted to join Nigeria, the Southern Cameroons voted to integrate into

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4030-402: Was at the forefront of political attention. In 1971, Birch published another widely read text, Representation , a brief introduction to the key concept of representation (London: Pall Mall Press and Macmillan, 1971). He published Political Integration and Disintegration in the British Isles (London: Allen and Unwin) in 1977. That year, he moved to Canada, and took up a position as professor in

4095-452: Was the recipient of the prestigious Sir Isaiah Berlin award for Lifetime Contribution to Political Studies from the Political Studies Association in 2002. Birch died in Victoria on 13 December 2014, at the age of 90. On the day of his death, several former colleagues paid tribute to his work. Robert Benewick commented that: "Tony Birch's Representative and Responsible Government along with Samuel Beer 's Modern British Politics were perhaps

4160-570: Was to provide each group with its own colony. In 1841, the two Canadas were merged into the Province of Canada . The union proved contentious, however, resulting in a legislative deadlock between English and French legislators. The difficulties of the union, among other factors, led in 1867 to the formation of the Canadian Confederation , a federal system that united the Province of Canada , Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (later joined by other British colonies in North America ). The federal framework did not eliminate all tensions, however, leading to

4225-423: Was well into his 80s. Birch's approach to political science was wide-ranging. He worked across many of the divisions in the field, including those that separate "theory" from empirical work, "domestic" from comparative politics, or "science" from engaged political commentary. His eclectic approach is apparent from the wide range of theoretical and empirical subjects upon which Birch wrote articles and reviews within

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