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51-574: The Chiapas Highlands are in the central part of the state of Chiapas. They are part of the Central American highlands, which run from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico to central Nicaragua . The Chiapas Highlands comprise a limestone mass with extrusive volcanic rocks at the highest peaks, covering over 11,000 km. They extend 160 km along a northwest–southeast axis, and 70 km at

102-680: A company that also operates along the Ferroistmo -owned Tuehantepec line. Several proposals have been made for modernizing the inter-ocean rail connection. In 2019, as part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec Development Plan, a project has been taking place since June of that year to create a communication link between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans through the Tehuantepec Railway and the ports of Salina Cruz and Coatzacoalcos, known as

153-581: A hot, seasonally dry climate - warm sub-humid in the lowlands, transitioning to semi-warm humid on mountain slopes. It lies in the rain shadow of the Chiapas Highlands to the north and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south, and is drier than the surrounding highlands and nearby lowlands. Much of the rainfall occurs in the summer, and there is a long dry season lasting four to six months. Average annual precipitation can be less than 800 mm in

204-526: A maize-based drink. Since the days of Hernán Cortés , the Tehuantepec isthmus has been considered a favorable route, first for an interoceanic canal , and since the 19th century for an interoceanic railway . Its proximity to the axis of international trade gives it some advantage over the Panama route. The Isthmus of Panama, however, is significantly narrower, making for a shorter traversal, even if

255-564: A place. Brown, (1993) talks extensively about the inequalities that the system has created for indigenous peoples and how despite the efforts of the Mexican government those inequalities still persist. Starting in the 1940s the Instituto Nacional Indigenista (INI) run a program aimed at "integrating" the indigenous people to the modern world. The public policy was known as indigenismo. Acculturation took place through

306-765: A steady flow of labor to other regions and to the non indigenous living within the region. San Cristobal was described as a "parasitic city that used its political, administrative, and religious powers to strip the Indians of the fruits of their labors." The city was key in establishing an exploitation system in the region. At the center of the exploitation system there are long term ethnic divisions where mestizos (person of Hispanic culture from outside of Los Altos), ladinos (Person of Hispanic culture from within Los Altos historically San Cristobal) and indigenas (people from indigenous descent most of them are Tsotsiles or Tsetsales) have

357-699: A surge of denser air originating from the North American continent will send strong winds through the Chivela Pass and out over the Gulf of Tehuantepec on the Pacific coast. This wind is known as the Tehuano . The region has one of the best wind resources in Mexico, with several wind farms . In the Oaxaca half of Tehuantepec, the population is composed mostly of indigenous Zapotec peoples . The women are

408-639: Is a usual practice for intermediaries also known as coyotes (usually ladinos) to charge producers a high fee to transport their harvest from their community to the cabezera municipal (head of county) or San Cristobal to be sold. In that same way, products sold directly in the communities tend to be more expensive than when sold in San Cristobal. As a result, some indigenous coffee producing communities have self organize in to coffee cooperatives offering an alternative to independent indigenous producers to commercialize their product. Economic activity in Los Altos

459-729: Is an isthmus in Mexico . It represents the shortest distance between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean . Before the opening of the Panama Canal , it was a major overland transport route known simply as the Tehuantepec Route . The name is taken from the town of Santo Domingo Tehuantepec in the state of Oaxaca ; this was derived from the Nahuatl term Tēcuāntepēc (" jaguar mountain "). The isthmus includes

510-432: Is constrained by a high degree of marginalization . The region's total population is 601,190 distributed in 1,182 villages of which only two have more than 15,000 inhabitants. The vast majority of people live in communities with less than 2,500 inhabitants. In fact there are more than 900 communities with less than 500 inhabitants. The largest population center is San Cristobal de las Casas with 158, 000 inhabitants. This city

561-465: Is cool with a January average of 12.3 °C (54.1 °F). Owing to its altitude and the relative aridity of the dry season, San Cristóbal de las Casas has a fairly high diurnal temperature range and nighttime temperatures are cool. Extended periods of frosts are rare, occurring only 2–3 days per year in December to February. Humidity is high (around 78%), even during the winter months, and fog or mist

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612-467: Is either Tsotsil or Tsetsal. In fact, Tsotsil is the lingua franca in the region and is spoken amongst many indigenous of other denominations and some Latinos. The seasonal pattern of rain is ideal for the cultivation of maize and beans which are the staple food for most local indigenous people. However, at high elevations in Tierra Fria production only reaches subsistence levels. On the flanks of

663-563: Is high, with about 980 plant species, and includes 40% of the endemic species of dry ecosystems found in Mexico. It also forms a corridor that connects two major biogeographic region, the Gulf of Mexico on the east and the Pacific in the west. Native mammals include the gray fox ( Urocyon cinereoargenteus ), hooded skunk ( Mephitis macroura ), and hog-nosed skunk ( Conepatus mesoleucos ), particularly in isolated sierras and canyons less disturbed by human activity. Characteristic birds include

714-426: Is quite common during the winter months, occurring 13–17 days per month with fog. Usually, this clears off during the day. The wet season, which runs from May to October is warmer, with a June average of 17.0 °C (62.6 °F) and precipitation is significantly higher during these months. Fog is less common during this time. Average annual precipitation is 1,084.7 millimetres (42.7 in) most of it concentrated in

765-538: Is the narrowest area between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in the whole country. Only 220 kilometers separate the two oceans between the gulfs of Mexico and Tehuantepec. During the first half of the 16th century, it seemed as if nature could not withstand the strenuous effort of the Spanish conquistadores to find, within the tropics, a strait connecting the two oceans. This meant that in the conquest explorations during

816-516: Is the regional economic and political center of the region. San Cristobal or 'Jovel' (in Tsotsil) was founded in 1528 as "Ciudad Real" by Spanish conquerors as the capital of the province and the headquarters of Hispanic control in the highlands. In colonial times the Chiapanecan region was a marginal territory due to its lack of precious metals and its long distance to the main commerce routes or

867-468: The Atlantic or northern slope is 3,960 mm (156 in) and the maximum temperature about 35 °C (95 °F) in the shade. The Pacific slope has a light rainfall and dryer climate . The narrowness of the isthmus, and the gap in the Sierra Madre, allow the trade winds from the Gulf of Mexico to blow through to the Pacific. Normally, these winds are not particularly strong, but periodically,

918-515: The Central American river turtle . As a result, the Isthmus presents a case of allopatric speciation wherein a geographic divide gives rise to population divergence and a significant decrease in gene flow. The predominant climates in the region are tropical savanna (primarily in the south) and tropical monsoon (primarily in the north). There are also small central areas with a temperate climate due to elevation. The annual rainfall on

969-508: The Interoceanic Corridor of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . Recent reports state that this corridor will be fully operational by December 2023. 17°12′N 94°42′W  /  17.2°N 94.7°W  / 17.2; -94.7 Chiapas Depression dry forests The Chiapas Depression dry forests form one of the ecoregions that belong to the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests biome , as defined by

1020-870: The World Wildlife Fund , in northwestern Central America . This ecoregion is located in the central Chiapas Depression, which lies between the Chiapas Highlands on the north and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south. The Chiapas Depression is mostly within Chiapas state of Mexico , and extends into northwestern Guatemala . The depression is drained by the Grijalva River . It covers an area of around 13,900 km . It lies at an elevation of 420–800 metres (1,380–2,620 ft). The Chiapas Depression dry forests ecoregion has

1071-412: The plain chachalaca ( Ortalis vetula ), mottled owl ( Strix virgata ), lesser roadrunner ( Geococcyx velox ), and white-throated magpie-jay ( Calocitta formosa ). Native snakes include the boa constrictor ( Boa constrictor ) and neotropical rattlesnake ( Crotalus durissus ). The ecoregion has been seriously threatened by cattle grazing, which is the main cause of its destruction, along with

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1122-488: The 16th century, this region was used as an interoceanic passage. The exploration of this region between the 'North Sea' and the 'South Sea' was, since the conquest of Mesoamerica, a fixed idea of the Spanish monarchy and its representatives. Carlos V made this project one of the priority missions of the explorers whose objective was to put the kingdom of New Spain in communication with that of Peru. Hernán Cortés, in 1520, used this route to transport equipment and supplies across

1173-533: The Ferrocarril Transístmico ("Trans-Isthmic Railroad")), is 308 km (191 mi) long, running from the port of Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf of Mexico to Salina Cruz in Oaxaca on the Pacific coast, with a branch of 29 km (18 mi) between Juile and San Juan Evangelista . The minimum depth at low water in both ports is 10 m (33 ft). An extensive system of quays and railway tracks at both terminals affords ample facilities for

1224-516: The Gulf of Mexico. The limestone of the plateau is easily eroded by water, creating a karst landscape with many sinkholes, sinkhole lakes, caverns, and underground drainage. The Chiapas Depression separates the Central Highlands from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas , which runs east and west through the southern part of Chiapas and extending west into Oaxaca and eastwards into Guatemala and El Salvador . The Sierra Madre de Chiapas forms

1275-523: The Isthmus itself. During the last third of the 16th century, Spanish expeditions arrived at the port of Veracruz, in the Gulf of Mexico, and from there they moved by boat to the mouth of the Coatzacoalcos River. The material necessary to build ships (supplies and tools or provisions) in the shipyards located along the Pacific coast, together with the artillery, were loaded into shallow canoes to navigate upstream, and subsequently transported, on

1326-430: The Mexican government resolved to undertake the railroad construction on its own account, and entered into contracts with a prominent Mexican contractor for the work. In 1888 this contract was rescinded, after 108 km (67 mi) of road had been completed. The next contract was fruitless because of the death of the contractor, and the third failed to complete the work within the sum specified ( £2,700,000 ). This

1377-466: The backs of the indigenous people, from the sources of the Coatzacoalcos River to the Pacific coast, in the Gulf of Tehuantepec.1 Many of these expeditions later moved along the coast to the port of Acapulco, from where they sailed along the western coast of North America, and then set off westwards, seeking a passage to the Philippines and southern China. The advantages of this itinerary would lead to

1428-493: The canal is farther from trade routes. The 1854 Gadsden Purchase treaty included a provision allowing the U.S. to transport mail and trade goods across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec via a plank road and railroad . The 1859 McLane–Ocampo Treaty , which Benito Juárez signed but was never ratified by the United States Congress, would have given the U.S. extensive transit rights along the same route. While

1479-574: The divide between the basins of the Grijalva and Usumacinta rivers and those that drain southwards into the Pacific Ocean . San Cristóbal de las Casas is the largest city in the highlands. Other towns include Comitán and Ocosingo . San Cristóbal de las Casas , a city in the Chiapas highlands has a mild subtropical highland climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwb ) moderated by its altitude. The dry season, which runs from November to April

1530-541: The drainage works of the valley of Mexico and the new port works of Veracruz , to rebuild the line and construct terminal ports at Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf coast , and at Salina Cruz on the Pacific side. The work was done for account of the Mexican government. Work began on 10 December 1899, and was finished to a point where its formal opening for traffic was possible in January 1907. The Tehuantepec railway (now

1581-778: The driest areas. Tropical deciduous dry forest is the predominant plant community. Many trees lose their leaves during the long dry season, and the appearance of the forest changes dramatically between wet and dry seasons. The forests are generally low-canopied, and characteristic trees include Lysiloma divaricatum , Mexican alvaradoa ( Alvaradoa amorphoides ), peacock flower ( Caesalpinia pulcherrima ), ceiba or kapok ( Ceiba pentandra ), buttercup tree ( Cochlospermum vitifolium ), Comocladia engleriana , butterfly orchid tree ( Bauhinia divaricata ) and Bursera spp. Cactus and other succulent plants are common. Semi-deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of medium height are found in canyons and other areas with higher soil moisture, and in

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1632-405: The effects of logging and the expansion of the agricultural frontier. Much of the ecoregion has been converted to cropland, including corn, beans, and peanuts, with sugarcane and corn in irrigated areas. Large areas have been cleared for pasturing cattle, which graze on introduced grasses. Tuxtla Gutiérrez is the largest city in the ecoregion. A 2017 assessment found that 309 km², or 2%, of

1683-596: The expeditious handling of heavy cargoes . The general offices and repair shops of the original Tehuantepec Railway were located at Rincón Antonio , at the entrance to the Chivela Pass . At Santa Lucrecia , 175 km (109 mi) from Salina Cruz, connection was made with the Veracruz & Pacific Railway, 343 km (213 mi) to Córdoba, Veracruz , and 500 km (310 mi) to Mexico City . Those connecting lines are now owned and operated by Ferrosur ,

1734-401: The grades in crossing the sierra. The Selva Zoque in the eastern-central region of the isthmus is an area of great ecological importance, the largest remaining area of tropical rainforest in Mexico and holding the majority of the terrestrial biodiversity in Mexico. The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca mountains flatten to form Chivela Pass before the Sierra Madre de Chiapas mountains resume to

1785-508: The head of Laguna Superior on the Pacific coast. The Sierra Madre del Sur mountain range breaks down at this point into a broad, plateau -like ridge, whose elevation, at the highest point reached by the Ferrocarril Transistmico railway at Chivela Pass , is 224 m (735 ft). The northern side of the isthmus is swampy and densely covered with jungle , which has been a greater obstacle to railway construction than

1836-605: The highlands between an altitude of 4,000 and 5,500 ft coffee can be produced. Coffee constitutes a major crop and unlike beans and maize it is sold for cash. Other cash crops are also produced within the region such as cabbage in Chamula or Mandarins in Tenejapa, but their importance is null compared with coffee. Cattle and sheep are other commercial enterprises. Producers (usually indigenous) also face hardships when trying to commercialize their produce, as described by Brown it

1887-409: The idea of a canal across the isthmus failed to gain momentum due to the enormous cost of such a project, engineer James B. Eads proposed to construct a quadruple track ship-railway , and the scheme received serious attention for some time. Then came projects for an ordinary railway, and several concessions were granted by the Mexican government for this purpose from 1857 to 1882. In the latter year

1938-476: The isthmus from the Gulf of Mexico to his shipyard located on the Pacific coast, near the town of Santo Domingo de Tehuantepec. The advantage lay in the ability to make a good part of the journey by river. Approximately two-thirds of the Isthmus is crossed by the Coatzacoalcos River , which is navigable for approximately 200 kilometers. Cortés saw this river as a means of fluvial communication across

1989-457: The northwestern transition to the Petén–Veracruz moist forests . Montezuma cypress ( Taxodium mucronatum ) and fig ( Ficus spp.) grow in riverine forests. There are areas of savanna in the central and northwestern parts of the ecoregion. Grasslands, including many introduced grasses, and palm groves are found in areas disturbed by human activity and livestock grazing. Its biodiversity

2040-414: The part of Mexico lying between the 94th and 96th meridians west longitude , or the southeastern parts of Veracruz and Oaxaca, including small areas of Chiapas and Tabasco. The states of Tabasco and Chiapas are east of the isthmus , with Veracruz and Oaxaca on the west. At its narrowest point, the isthmus is 200 km (124 mi) across from gulf to gulf, or 192 km (119 mi) to

2091-505: The proposal, as early as the 16th century, of an interoceanic canal. However, a series of difficulties caused the most feasible option, Panama, to eclipse Tehuantepec as an interoceanic passage. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a valley otherwise surrounded by montane habitats, has also been noted as an important biogeographical barrier among montane taxa, such as Mexican birds. Population diversification has been observed among not only avian fauna, but other organisms as well, including toads and

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2142-416: The sea making it an unattractive region for Spanish conquers to settle in. In Los Altos the social order was composed of extreme castes, the majority of the inhabitants were impoverished Indians while few Spanish concentrated the social and economic power. Ethnic segregation was and still is at the core of the economic system. Since colonial times and until recently Los Altos indigenous population has provided

2193-660: The south, so geographically the isthmus divides North America from Central America. The southern edge of the North American tectonic plate lies across the Motagua Fault in Guatemala , so geologically, the division between North America and Central America (on the Caribbean Plate ) is much farther south than the isthmus of Tehuantepec. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a region located in the south of Mexico,

2244-457: The southwest, which lies in the mountains' drier rain shadow. The Chiapaneca regional government recognizes the highlands as a socioeconomic region called "altos Tsotsil-Tsetsal" that is formed by 17 municipalities. Culturally, the region is subdivided in Tsotsil and Tsetsal. Spanish is the main language spoken in San Cristobal, however in all of the rural municipalities the main language spoken

2295-704: The traders in the Oaxacan Tehuantepec area and do little menial work. Known as "Tehuanas", these women are known throughout Mexico for their colorful dresses, assertive personalities, and relatively equal relations with men, leading some to characterize them as "matriarchal." The cuisine of the region is based upon traditional foods and ingredients. Dishes may range from simple to elaborate; most dishes incorporate maize and moles . Common items include tamales made with iguana , chicken, beef or armadillo ; guetabingui (fried balls of rice and shrimp); garnachas topped with dried queso Oaxaca ; and pozol ,

2346-433: The training of promotores -indigenous instructors- that taught Spanish, hygiene and cultural norms to indigenous communities. Another important component of the program was to introduce much needed infrastructure like roads, schools health clinics and commerce to the communities since as pointed out by Lewis, during the 1950s modern infrastructure was virtually non existent outside of San Cristobal. Despite many difficulties and

2397-453: The use of controversial approaches, the program created a rudimentary highway system in which some of the communities are connected by all weather roads while most have access through dirt roads that are unusable during the rainy season or no road at all. As a consequence bringing products to the communities can be a difficult task. Isthmus of Tehuantepec The Isthmus of Tehuantepec ( Spanish pronunciation: [tewanteˈpek] )

2448-634: The wet season. The wettest month recorded was September 1998 when 525.8 millimetres (20.7 in) of precipitation was recorded, and the wettest day recorded was on October 4, 2005 with105 millimetres (4.1 in). Extremes range from a low of −8.5 °C (16.7 °F) to 35.8 °C (96.4 °F). The higher elevations are covered by pine forests , with Mexican yellow pine ( Pinus oocarpa ) and smooth-bark Mexican pine ( Pinus pseudostrobus ). Pine–oak forests include Mexican yellow pine and smooth-bark Mexican pine with Quercus peduncularis and other species of oaks. montane cloud forests are found on

2499-496: The widest. The elevation varies from 300 to 2,898 meters above the sea level. The northern and eastern slopes of the Central Highlands are drained by the Usumacinta River , which empties northwards into the Gulf of Mexico . The Chiapas Depression lies south of the Central Highlands. The Chiapas Depression and southern slopes of the Chiapas Highlands are drained by the Grijalva River , which also empties northwards into

2550-454: The windward north- and east-facing slopes with high year-round rainfall. Predominant trees include oaks, majagua ( Trichospermum mexicanum ), American sweetgum ( Liquidambar styraciflua ) and alder ( Alnus sp.). Lower-elevation forests include areas of tropical evergreen forest, with big-leaf mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla ), Spanish cedar ( Cedrela odorata ) and Santa Maria hardwood ( Calophyllum brasiliense ), and dry forests in

2601-471: Was in 1893, and 60 km (37 mi) remained to be built. A fourth contract resulted in the completion of the 130-mile line from coast to coast in 1894. But, it was found that the terminal ports were deficient in facilities and the railroad was too light for heavy traffic. The government then entered into a contract with the London firm of contractors of S. Pearson & Son, Ltd. , who had constructed

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