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119-433: The term "chief innovation officer" was first coined and described in the 1998 book Fourth Generation R&D . Organizations with a CINO/CTIO are practicing part of the fourth generation of innovation theory and practice to emerge since 1900. Successful chief innovation officers focus on delivering on the key principles behind innovation - leadership , creating networks, harnessing VOC / HOC in idea development, leveraging

238-417: A Bachelor of Commerce or a Master of Business Administration degree. Some major organizations, including companies, non-profit organizations, and governments, require applicants to managerial or executive positions to hold at minimum bachelor's degree in a field related to administration or management, or in the case of business jobs, a Bachelor of Commerce or a similar degree. At the undergraduate level,

357-457: A Divine plan . Compare this with servant leadership . For a more general view on leadership in politics , compare the concept of the statesperson . Anecdotal and incidental observations aside, the serious discipline of theorising leadership began in the 19th century. The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Plato 's Republic to Plutarch's Lives have explored

476-442: A chief financial officer , chief technology officer , and so on. They are responsible for controlling and overseeing the operations of the entire organization. They set a " tone at the top " and develop strategic plans , company policies , and make decisions on the overall direction of the organization. In addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources. Senior managers are accountable to

595-671: A broad understanding of competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including instructions for the preparation of department budgets, procedures, and schedules; appointment of middle-level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and governmental relations; and shareholder communication. Consist of general managers , branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to

714-409: A business setting. Assume praise is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus)

833-530: A dedicated personnel department. By 1929 that number had grown to over one-third. Formal management education became standardized at colleges and universities. Colleges and universities capitalized on the needs of corporations by forming business schools and corporate placement departments. This shift toward formal business education marked the creation of a corporate elite in the US. By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as

952-627: A drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait—situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of

1071-419: A fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them. LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between

1190-403: A group vision. The transactional leader is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to

1309-658: A leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work. Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as consideration and initiating structure . Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for

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1428-544: A manager's organization and a foe's. The writings of influential Chinese Legalist philosopher Shen Buhai may be considered to embody a rare premodern example of abstract theory of administration. American philosopher Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou , argued in his Desultory Notes on

1547-538: A market embracing diversity and a rising service industry. Managers are currently being trained to encourage greater equality for minorities and women in the workplace, by offering increased flexibility in working hours, better retraining, and innovative (and usually industry-specific) performance markers. Managers destined for the service sector are being trained to use unique measurement techniques, better worker support, and more charismatic leadership styles. Human resources finds itself increasingly working with management in

1666-467: A movement for evidence-based management . The English verb manage has its roots in the fifteenth-century French verb mesnager , which often referred in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse". Also the Italian term maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible. In Spanish , manejar can also mean to rule the horses. These three terms derive from

1785-517: A new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of servant leadership and authentic leadership . Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's Three Levels of Leadership model (2011). Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing

1904-404: A new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of mindfulness meditation . Bernard Bass and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: transactional which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and transformational which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing

2023-552: A new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers—thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership". The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain, but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed. Starting in the 19th century, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism — Lenin (1870–1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as

2142-421: A normative decision model in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation. This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different group decision making approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory. The path-goal theory of leadership

2261-484: A person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common and ethical task ". In other words, leadership is an influential power -relationship in which the power of one party (the "leader") promotes movement/change in others (the "followers"). Some have challenged the more traditional managerial views of leadership (which portray leadership as something possessed or owned by one individual due to their role or authority ), and instead advocate

2380-724: A person's ability to lead effectively. He pointed out, for example, that: Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership: Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced

2499-537: A philosophy. Critics, however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management without circularity , the shifting nature of definitions and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of a class . One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to " business administration " and thus excludes management in places outside commerce , for example in charities and in

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2618-454: A physical or mechanical mechanism) implies human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome. As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management

2737-492: A study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions. The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates

2856-509: A subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards. The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing

2975-412: A substitute for evaluating or comprehending adept governance abilities. Managerial Management (or managing ) is the administration of organizations, whether they are a business , a nonprofit organization , or a government body through business administration , nonprofit management , or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively. It is the process of managing

3094-420: A thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne 's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor 's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Lillian Gilbreth 's Psychology of Management (1914), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt 's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote

3213-399: A training capacity to help collect management data on the success (or failure) of management actions with employees. Good practices identified for managers include "walking the shop floor", and, especially for managers who are new in post, identifying and achieving some "quick wins" which demonstrate visible success in establishing appropriate objectives. Leadership writer John Kotter uses

3332-453: A variety of situations and tasks. Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses , in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed

3451-465: Is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time. Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity. Empirical research covering

3570-911: Is an essential function in improving one's life and relationships . Management is therefore everywhere and it has a wider range of application. Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through enterprise or through independent pursuit. Plans, measurements , motivational psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans , and meeting goals , but this applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925) considers management to consist of five functions : In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She described management as

3689-569: Is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or organization to " lead ", influence, or guide other individuals, teams , or organizations . "Leadership" is a contested term. Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the concept, sometimes contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) North American versus European approaches. Some U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of social influence in which

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3808-507: Is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job titles. The top or senior layer of management is a small group which consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors , executive directors and independent directors ), president , vice-president , CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. Different organizations have various members in their C-suite, which may include

3927-405: Is focused on the organizational innovation through technology. This is an important strategic position, especially in an organization that has a significant technology component in addition to traditional information technology. This position is typically held by a person with broad technical expertise in that organization's industry. The title chief technology innovation officer is commonly used in

4046-511: Is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders. Emotional intelligence—the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others—contributes to effective leadership within organizations. The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme ) sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of information by

4165-401: Is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational manager may be well-thought-out by middle management or may be categorized as a non-management operator, liable to the policy of the specific organization. The efficiency of the middle level is vital in any organization since it bridges

4284-706: Is the most popular professional degree at the master's level and can be obtained from many universities in the United States. MBA programs provide further education in management and leadership for graduate students. Other master's degrees in business and management include Master of Management (MM) and the Master of Science (M.Sc.) in business administration or management, which is typically taken by students aiming to become researchers or professors. There are also specialized master's degrees in administration for individuals aiming at careers outside of business , such as

4403-591: The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA), the Ph.D. in business administration, the Ph.D. in management, and the Ph.D. in political science with a concentration in public administration. In the 2010s, doctorates in business administration and management were available with many specializations. While management trends can change fast, the long-term trend in management has been defined by

4522-466: The Fiedler contingency model , the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a contingency theory , as it depends on the circumstances, and as a transactional leadership theory , as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and

4641-436: The Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree (also offered as a Master of Arts or Master of Science in public administration in some universities), for students aiming to become managers or executives in the public service and the Master of Health Administration , for students aiming to become managers or executives in the health care and hospital sector. Management doctorates are the most advanced terminal degrees in

4760-565: The Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent . In the autocratic / paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias . Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies ". Comparable to

4879-580: The University of Oxford ) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships , which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews prompted researchers to take

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4998-795: The government jobs . Many colleges and universities also offer certificates and diplomas in business administration or management, which typically require one to two years of full-time study. To manage technological areas, one often needs an undergraduate degree in a STEM area . At the graduate level students aiming at careers as managers or executives may choose to specialize in major subareas of management or business administration such as entrepreneurship , human resources , international business , organizational behavior , organizational theory , strategic management , accounting , corporate finance , entertainment, global management, healthcare management , investment management , sustainability and real estate . A Master of Business Administration (MBA)

5117-582: The public sector . More broadly, every organization must "manage" its work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management as " business schools ". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School ) use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management ) employ the broader term "management". English speakers may also use

5236-489: The vanguard of a socialist revolution, which was to bring into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat . Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaro-papism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in accordance with

5355-414: The 1940s, Patrick Blackett worked in the development of the applied-mathematics science of operations research , initially for military operations. Operations research, sometimes known as " management science " (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management ), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving decision problems and can apply directly to multiple management problems, particularly in

5474-471: The 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today—society expected and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen, and slave-masters. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821, when the term referred to the position or office of a designated leader. The abstract notion of "leadership" as embodying

5593-440: The CEO or another C-level executive. However, for such a role to succeed it requires organisational support from the highest level possible and reporting to the CEO or one of their direct reports is a common practice. CINO/CTIO is a functional title, similar to the chief information security officer . The words "chief" and "officer" are used to communicate that a person in this position is responsible for driving innovation throughout

5712-519: The Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory. The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader's effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational contingency . This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called situational control ). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish

5831-684: The Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic . Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination , the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on

5950-548: The Indian Arthashastra by Chanakya (written around 300 BC), and The Prince by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli ( c.  1515 ). Written in 1776 by Adam Smith , a Scottish moral philosopher , The Wealth of Nations discussed efficient organization of work through division of labour . Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins . While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed

6069-448: The Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on

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6188-470: The alignment of technology vision with business strategy, and for driving technology innovation throughout the entire organization. The position can also be responsible for tracking new technology developments in areas of interest to the organization to ensure that it maintains a technological edge within the industry, analyzing and improving upon technology standards and maintaining organizational awareness of new technologies. Leadership Leadership ,

6307-561: The areas of logistics and operations. Some of the later 20th-century developments include the theory of constraints (introduced in 1984), management by objectives (systematized in 1954), re-engineering (the early 1990s), Six Sigma (1986), management by walking around (1970s), the Viable system model (1972), and various information-technology -driven theories such as agile software development (so-named from 2001), as well as group-management theories such as Cog's Ladder (1972) and

6426-421: The basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy

6545-418: The best available evidence. As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three principles of published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; judgment and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine

6664-484: The centuries faced the problems of exploiting and motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises , given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control. With

6783-595: The changing workplaces of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries, military theory and practice contributed approaches to managing the newly popular factories . Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the Industrial Revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with

6902-492: The complex nature of leadership which is found at all levels of institutions, both within formal and informal roles. Studies of leadership have produced theories involving (for example) traits , situational interaction, function, behavior , power , vision , values , charisma , and intelligence , among others. The Chinese doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven postulated the need for rulers to govern justly, and

7021-411: The day-to-day activities of the organization. However, this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size, and culture of the organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and are typically insured under directors and officers liability insurance . Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4 hours per week on board duties, and median compensation

7140-482: The democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems. Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called contingency theory . Three contingency leadership theories are

7259-406: The desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached. Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process, which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model. Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as

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7378-500: The early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles. David McClelland , for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential. Kurt Lewin , Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939

7497-510: The entire organization. Using a functional "chief ... officer" title helps to communicate that this is a cross-organizational position and enables this person to work across organizational silos. The CINO/CTIO focuses on radical or breakthrough innovation. The coined term CINO/CTIO is used to differentiate the position from the chief information officer , who is responsible for the information technology and computer systems that support enterprise goals. A chief technology innovation officer (CTIO)

7616-414: The field of business and management. Most individuals obtaining management doctorates take the programs to obtain the training in research methods, statistical analysis, and writing academic papers that they will need to seek careers as researchers, senior consultants, and/or professors in business administration or management. There are several types of management doctorates: the Doctor of Management (DM),

7735-510: The first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became the first management consultant of the " Japanese management style ". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance . The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School offered the first Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841–1925) and Alexander Church (1866–1936) described

7854-543: The follower responds well, the leader rewards him/her with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members. In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing

7973-411: The followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates. The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on

8092-643: The followers. Functional leadership theory addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion. While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership, it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well. In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers observed five broad functions

8211-473: The following: While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks. Specifically, Stephen Zaccaro noted that trait theories still: Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader-attribute-pattern approach. In contrast to

8330-721: The gap between top-level and bottom-level staff. Their functions include: Line managers include supervisors , section leaders, forepersons, and team leaders. They focus on controlling and directing regular employees. They are usually responsible for assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring the quality and quantity of production and/or service, making recommendations and suggestions to employees on their work, and channeling employee concerns that they cannot resolve to mid-level managers or other administrators. Low-level or "front-line" managers also act as role models for their employees. In some types of work, front-line managers may also do some of

8449-777: The growing size and complexity of organizations, a distinction between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties, or groups of shareholders ) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common. The field of management originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing . Some theorists have cited ancient military texts as providing lessons for civilian managers. For example, Chinese general Sun Tzu in his 6th-century BC work The Art of War recommends (when re-phrased in modern terminology) being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both

8568-493: The last 20 years suggests that applying reinforcement theory leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs. Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Social scientists argued that history was more than the result of intervention of great men as Carlyle suggested. Herbert Spencer (1884) (and Karl Marx ) said that

8687-477: The leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of in-groups and out-groups . In-group members are said to have high-quality exchanges with the leader, while out-group members have low-quality exchanges with the leader. In-group members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If

8806-485: The leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades. New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish trait theory as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the round-robin research design methodology allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across

8925-516: The leader or by other stakeholders, not through the actions of the leader. In other words, the reproduction of information or stories form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero Lord Nelson often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome. In modern society, various media outlets, including

9044-412: The leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization. Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with

9163-607: The leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors. The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing

9282-418: The leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement. B. F. Skinner is the father of behavior modification and developed the concept of positive reinforcement . Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future. The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in

9401-492: The most common business programs are the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Bachelor of Commerce (B.Com.). These typically comprise a four-year program designed to give students an overview of the role of managers in planning and directing within an organization. Course topics include accounting, financial management, statistics, marketing, strategy, and other related areas. Many other undergraduate degrees include

9520-484: The need for clerks, bookkeepers, secretaries and managers expanded. The demand for trained managers led college and university administrators to consider and move forward with plans to create the first schools of business on their campuses. At the turn of the twentieth century, the need for skilled and trained managers had become increasingly apparent. The demand occurred as personnel departments began to expand rapidly. In 1915, less than one in twenty manufacturing firms had

9639-400: The numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of

9758-465: The organization. Colleges and universities around the world offer bachelor's degrees, graduate degrees, diplomas, and certificates in management; generally within their colleges of business, business schools, or faculty of management but also in other related departments. Higher education has been characterized as a necessary factor in the managerial revolution in the 20th century. While some professions require academic credentials in order to work in

9877-421: The organizations that have a technology component as a part of its core business. The CTIO is responsible for maintaining organizational technological strategy, defining the requirements for new technology implementations and communicating them to key business stakeholders. The CTIO is responsible for organizational leadership on technology issues, management of the technology research and review function, ensuring

9996-560: The phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (1909–2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organization . Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein. H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890–1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management studies. In

10115-465: The phrase "Short-Term Wins" to express the same idea. As in all work, achieving an appropriate work-life balance for self and others is an important management practice. Evidence-based management is an emerging movement to use the current, best evidence in management and decision-making . It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices . Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by

10234-415: The plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief operating officer, chief executive officer, or board chairman. These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers at every level resembles a pyramid. Each level

10353-494: The pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi- mass production before wage slavery eclipsed chattel slavery. Salaried managers as an identifiable group first became prominent in the late 19th century. As large corporations began to overshadow small family businesses the need for personnel management positions became more necessary. Businesses grew into large corporations and

10472-468: The press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like royal lineage , which once stood as

10591-508: The profession (e.g., law, medicine, and engineering, which require, respectively the Bachelor of Law , Doctor of Medicine , and Bachelor of Engineering degrees), management and administration positions do not necessarily require the completion of academic degrees. Some well-known senior executives in the US who did not complete a degree include Steve Jobs , Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg . However, many managers and executives have completed some type of business or management training, such as

10710-404: The qualities and behaviors associated with leaders and influencers developed only later during the 19th and 20th centuries - possibly traceable from 1870 onwards. Historically, industrialization , opposition to the ancien regime , and the phasing out of chattel slavery meant that some newly developing organizations ( nation-state republics , commercial corporations ) evolved a need for

10829-407: The question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the " trait theory of leadership ". A number of works in the 19th century – when

10948-595: The resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations. Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers, in a pyramid structure: Management is taught across different disciplines at colleges and universities. Prominent major degree programs in management include Management , Business Administration and Public Administration . Social scientists study management as an academic discipline , investigating areas such as social organization , organizational adaptation , and organizational leadership . In recent decades, there has been

11067-456: The right incentives, and building/running an effective, transparent, and efficient innovation process. The CINO is responsible for managing the innovation process inside the organization that identifies strategies , business opportunities and new technologies and then develops new capabilities and architectures with partners, new business models and new industry structures to serve those opportunities. CINO/CTIO does not have to report to

11186-495: The right of subordinates to overthrow emperors who appeared to lack divine sanction. Pro- aristocracy thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or genes . Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the divine right of kings ). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as

11305-434: The risks and benefits of available actions; and the preferences and values of those affected. Some see management as a late-modern (in the sense of late modernity ) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history – only harbingers (such as stewards ). Others, however, detect management-like thought among ancient Sumerian traders and the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt . Slave owners through

11424-455: The same social backgrounds and interests. Out-group members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate job performance , good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a fair wage and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and

11543-489: The same tasks that employees do, at least some of the time. For example, in some restaurants, the front-line managers will also serve customers during a very busy period of the day. In general, line managers are considered part of the workforce and not part of the organization's proper management despite performing traditional management functions. Front-line managers typically provide: Some front-line managers may also provide career planning for employees who aim to rise within

11662-532: The semantic development of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries. Views on the definition and scope of management include: Management involves identifying the mission , objective, procedures , rules and manipulation of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the enterprise. Scholars have focused on the management of individual, organizational, and inter-organizational relationships. This implies effective communication : an enterprise environment (as opposed to

11781-500: The seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of group decision making , praise and criticism ( feedback ), and the management of the group tasks ( project management ) according to three styles: authoritarian , democratic , and laissez-faire . In 1945, Ohio State University conducted

11900-427: The shareholders, the general public, and public bodies that oversee corporations and similar organizations. Some members of the senior management may serve as the public face of the organization, and they may make speeches to introduce new strategies or appear in marketing . The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives who owe a fiduciary duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in

12019-423: The situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability. Victor Vroom , in collaboration with Phillip Yetton and later with Arthur Jago, developed a taxonomy for describing leadership situations. They used this in

12138-668: The social influence process. A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels: In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the leader improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings. Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative emotions at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it

12257-651: The steps involved in the manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled the production of 48,000 pins per day. Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723–1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) provided a theoretical background to resource allocation , production (economics) , and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765–1825), James Watt (1736–1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728–1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization , quality-control procedures, cost-accounting , interchangeability of parts, and work-planning . Many of these aspects of management existed in

12376-466: The strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader. Machiavelli's The Prince , written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers ("princes" or "tyrants" in Machiavelli's terminology) to gain and keep political power . Prior to

12495-460: The study of management, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees with a major in business administration or management and the Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS) in political science (PoliSci) with a concentration in public administration or the Bachelor of Public Administration (B.P.A), a degree designed for individuals aiming to work as bureaucrats in

12614-443: The task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power,

12733-409: The term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation . Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term labor – referring to those being managed. A common management structure of organizations includes three management levels: low-level, middle-level, and top-level managers. Low-level managers manage

12852-403: The times produce the person and not the other way around. This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions." Some theorists synthesized

12971-479: The top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in conformance with the company's policies and the top management's objectives, defining and discussing information and policies from top management to lower management, and most importantly, inspiring and providing guidance to lower-level managers towards better performance. Middle management

13090-431: The top weaknesses of CEOs were " mentoring skills" and "board engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO. The board may also have certain employees (e.g., internal auditors ) report to them or directly hire independent contractors ; for example, the board (through the audit committee ) typically selects the auditor . Helpful skills for top management vary by the type of organization but typically include

13209-609: The traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables. In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes. In response to

13328-433: The traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of Thomas Carlyle and of Francis Galton . In Heroes and Hero Worship (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's Hereditary Genius (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that

13447-405: The trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al., academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management;

13566-535: The two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act). The French word for housekeeping , ménagerie , derived from ménager ("to keep house"; compare ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic animals. Ménagerie is the French translation of Xenophon 's famous book Oeconomicus ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Οἰκονομικός ) on household matters and husbandry . The French word mesnagement (or ménagement ) influenced

13685-497: The various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891–1973), Walter Scott (1869–1955) and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management. Other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880–1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), Chester Barnard (1886–1961), Max Weber (1864–1920), who saw what he called the "administrator" as bureaucrat , Rensis Likert (1903–1981), and Chris Argyris (born 1923) approached

13804-594: The work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or creation of the organization's products. Low-level managers are often called supervisors, but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle managers include all levels of management between the low level and the top level of the organization. These managers manage the work of low-level managers and may have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and establishing

13923-450: Was $ 212,512 in 2010. The board sets corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions, and hires, evaluates, and fires the top-level manager ( chief executive officer or CEO). The CEO typically hires other positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the chief financial officer (CFO) has increased. In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and private companies found that

14042-557: Was developed by Robert House and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom . According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance". The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented , directive , participative , and supportive , that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to

14161-706: Was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model. Various ancient and medieval civilizations produced " mirrors for princes " books, which aimed to advise new monarchs on how to govern. Plato described job specialization in 350 BC, and Alfarabi listed several leadership traits in AD 900. Other examples include

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