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106-623: The mayor of Chongqing is the highest-ranking official in the People's Government of Chongqing. As since 1997 Chongqing has been a centrally administered municipality, the mayor occupies the same level in the order of precedence as provincial governors. However, in the city's dual party-government governing system, the mayor has less power than the Chongqing Chinese Communist Party Municipal Committee Secretary, colloquially termed

212-419: A mayor is the highest-ranking official in a municipal government such as that of a city or a town . Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities of a mayor as well as the means by which a mayor is elected or otherwise mandated. Depending on the system chosen, a mayor may be the chief executive officer of the municipal government, may simply chair

318-417: A cloak to cover facial disfigurement’ and front teeth were also accorded a higher value than other teeth. The section on surety lays down the rules if a person acts as mach or surety , for example for a debt, and gives the provisions for various cases, such as where the debtor refuses to pay or denies the debt and where the surety denies the suretyship or contests the sum involved. Rules are also given for

424-498: A directly elected mayor of the Dublin Metropolitan Area . The 2019 local elections included plebiscites in three areas on directly elected mayors, of which that for Mayor of Limerick was passed, with the first direct election due as part of the 2024 local elections . In Italy, the mayor is called sindaco , or informally primo cittadino ('first citizen'). Every municipality ( Italian : comune ) has

530-577: A fine. Most of the surviving manuscripts of Welsh law start with a preamble explaining how the laws were codified by Hywel. The introduction to the Book of Blegywryd is a typical example: Hywel the Good, son of Cadell, by the grace of God, king of all Wales... summoned to him from every commote of his kingdom six men who were practised in authority and jurisprudence... to the place called the White House on

636-714: A five-year term. Local administration elections for the new, consolidated municipalities and peripheries will henceforth be held together with the elections for the European Parliament . Local administration in Greece recently underwent extensive reform in two phases: the first phase, implemented in 1997 and commonly called the Kapodistrias Plan , consolidated the country's numerous municipalities and communities down to approximately 1000. The second phase, initially called Kapodistrias II but eventually called

742-422: A hidden scar which will therefore attract less remarks. The craith ogyfarch afforded the most compensation, but the value of the ogyfarch compensation varied according to its noticability. The three most conspicuous scars are given as those on a face (six score pence), on a hand (sixty pence), and on a foot (thirty pence), whilst a hidden scar is given only four pence. The Latin texts A and E ‘make provision for

848-412: A kin-based society. The tongue is also particularly high because, as with the ear, it would have formed the primary means of communication for the victim. Also notable are the different grades of compensation given to wounds depending on the degree of disfigurement produced by the wounding, with a differentiation between craith ogyfarch ; a conspicuous scar which attracts remarks, and craith guiddiedig ;

954-403: A mayor include direct election by the public, or selection by an elected governing council or board. The term mayor shares a linguistic origin with the military rank of major , both ultimately derived from French majeur . In modern England and Wales, the position of mayor descends from the feudal lord's bailiff or reeve ( see borough ). The chief magistrate of London bore

1060-567: A mayor may wear robes, a mayoral chain and a mace . Mayors have the title of His/Her Worship whilst holding the position. In councils where councillors are elected representing political parties, the mayor is normally the leader of the party receiving the most seats on council. In Queensland , the lord mayor and mayors are elected by popular vote at the general council election. Mayors in Bangladesh are elected every five years. They are very powerful in municipal government. The mayor

1166-453: A mayor who represents the local government. The mayor is directly elected every five years by the inhabitants of the comune ; the mayor cannot serve for more than two consecutive terms, except in municipalities of up to 5,000 inhabitants, those having a three consecutive terms limit. The mayor is a member of the City council, the legislative body which checks the mayor's policy guidelines and

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1272-424: A multi-member governing body with little or no independent power, or may play a solely ceremonial role. A mayor's duties and responsibilities may be to appoint and oversee municipal managers and employees, provide basic governmental services to constituents, and execute the laws and ordinances passed by a municipal governing body (or mandated by a state, territorial or national governing body). Options for selection of

1378-431: A native Welshman (even a serf ) who would be responsible for them. This status could only be removed after three generations in the north and possibly as many as nine elsewhere, after which the foreigner's descendants were considered to be native serfs. The position of women under Welsh law differed significantly to that of their Norman-English contemporaries. A marriage could be established in two basic ways. The normal way

1484-421: A number of legal terms. Sarhad could mean an insult or injury or the payment that was due to a person in the event of an insult or injury, and this varied according to the status of the person concerned, for example the queen or the edling's sarhad was one third that of the king. Galanas was a form of weregild and represented the value of a person's life in the event of a homicide and was set at three times

1590-480: A population bigger than 25,000 has one. The term Oberbürgermeister is not used in the three city-states, where the mayors are simultaneously head of state governments , but Regierender Bürgermeister ( Governing Mayor of Berlin ), Erster Bürgermeister ( First Mayor of the city-state of Hamburg ) and Präsident des Senats und Bürgermeister ( President of the Senate and Mayor of Bremen ) are used. However,

1696-584: A position at the royal courts charged with administering the serfs of the king's lands . To maintain its dependence on and loyalty to the Crown, the position was forbidden to the leaders of the clan groups. A separate mayor, known as the "cow dung mayor" ( maer biswail ), was charged with overseeing the royal cattle. There were similar offices at the Scottish and Irish courts. The office of mayor in most modern English and Welsh boroughs and towns did not in

1802-528: A substantial number of manuscripts containing the law texts (for example, NLW MS 20143A ), there are no existing manuscripts of law texts dating back to the time of Hywel and Welsh law was continually being revised and updated. There has been some debate among scholars as to whether the laws were originally written in Welsh or Latin . The Surexit memorandum in the Lichfield Gospels is a record of

1908-474: A term of four years. The daily duties of the mayor's office are restricted to local governance, and as such, it is responsible for the coordination of waste collection , upkeep of public spaces (e.g., parks, undeveloped urban parcels, streets), traffic light control, sewage, and most public utilities. In practice, most of its duties are centered on minor street repairs (new or large road projects, like overpasses, bridges, pedestrian crossings, etc. are handled by

2014-465: A woman found her husband with another woman, she was entitled to a payment of six score pence (i.e. half a pound) the first time and a pound the second time; on the third occasion she was entitled to divorce him. If the husband had a concubine, the wife was allowed to strike her without having to pay any compensation, even if it resulted in the concubine's death. A woman could only be beaten by her husband for three things: for giving away something which she

2120-441: Is able to enforce his resignation by a motion of no confidence , and is entitled to appoint and release the members of the executive body ( Italian : giunta ). Laws of Hywel Dda Cyfraith Hywel ( Welsh: [ˈkəvraiθ ˈhəwɛl] ; Laws of Hywel ), also known as Welsh law ( Latin : Leges Walliæ ), was the system of law practised in medieval Wales before its final conquest by England . Subsequently,

2226-462: Is elected in a pair with a vice mayor through direct elections and is a political office. An exception is Special Capital Region of Jakarta , where mayoralty is a civil-service career position with limited authority and is designated by the governor . Their regions are called administration cities ( kota administrasi ). Before 1999, there were administrative cities ( kota administratif , [id] ) which were headed by administrative mayors. In Iran ,

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2332-685: Is just a deputy responsible for a distinct task (e.g., welfare or construction works). Big cities are usually kreisfrei ('district-free'). That means that the city council also has the powers and duties of a rural district council. The leader of a rural district council is called Landrat ('land counsellor'). In that case, the chief mayor also has the duties and powers of a Landrat . There are also some German states that allow smaller cities to have an Oberbürgermeister as well. In Saarland , for instance, every city with more than 35,000 inhabitants has one, and in Saxony-Anhalt every city with

2438-474: Is some underlying notion that some are perhaps more essential than others (at least in the Iorwerth and LATIN A texts) with hearing being more important than any of the other senses. Fingers are valued at 80 pence each, whilst a thumb has a value of 180 pence which corresponds to its use in ‘gripping agricultural equipment or arms’. The Iorwerth and Cyfnerth 5 recensions value a finger nail at 30 pence, whilst

2544-732: Is still in use when referring to the top managers of the municipalities of Norway . The top elected official of the municipalities of Norway, on the other hand, has the title ordfører , which actually means 'word-bearer', i.e. 'chairperson' or 'president', an equivalent to the Swedish word ordförande . In Sweden borgmästare was a title of the senior judge of the courts of the cities, courts which were called rådhusrätt , literally 'town hall court', somewhat of an equivalent to an English magistrates' court . These courts were abolished in 1971. Until 1965, these mayor judges on historical grounds also performed some administrative functions in

2650-517: Is the highest-ranking official in municipal governments in Bangladesh. Every municipality in Brazil elects a mayor (Portuguese: prefeito/prefeita ) and a vice-mayor (Portuguese: vice-prefeito/vice-prefeita ) for a four-year term, acting as an executive officer with the city council (Portuguese: Câmara Municipal ) functioning with legislative powers. The mayor can be re-elected and manage

2756-569: Is the practice in most Commonwealth countries, in Canada a mayor is addressed as His/Her Worship while holding office. In a few municipalities and townships in Ontario , the reeve is the elected head of the municipality, and the second-in-command is referred to as the deputy reeve . Historically, in some small townships , the title "reeve" was used instead of mayor. In some other municipalities, "mayor" and "reeve" were two separate offices, with

2862-540: Is valued at 480 pennies, every other limb is carefully valued and can be altered depending on various influencing factors. The values given to eyes, ears, nose, lips, hands, and feet are identical; termed as the ‘Limbs of equal value’ they represent 12.7% of the standard galanas for a boneheddig (A boneheddig is a standard free-man, whose galanas is valued at 3780 pennies/ 63 cows). There are no additional complexities to any of these costs, except when it comes to ears. The Iorwerth manuscripts and LATIN A do not value

2968-839: The Alcalde evolved during the Reconquista as new lands were settled by the expanding kingdoms of León and Castile . As fortified settlements in the area between the Douro and Tagus rivers became true urban centers, they gained, from their feudal lords or the kings of Leon and Castile, the right to have councils. Among the rights that these councils had was to elect a municipal judge ( iudex in Latin and juez in Spanish). These judges were assisted in their duties by various assistant judges, called alcaldes , whose number depended on

3074-523: The audiencias ; Alcaldes de la Casa y Corte de Su Majestad , who formed the highest tribunal in Castile and also managed the royal court; alcaldes mayores , a synonym for corregidor ; and alcaldes de barrio , who were roughly the equivalent of British parish constables . Because of this, the municipal alcalde was often referred to as an alcalde ordinario . Mayors in Armenia are

3180-550: The Kallikratis Plan , was implemented in 2010, further consolidated municipalities down to 370, and merged the country's 54 prefectures, which were disbanded in favour of the larger 13 regions. The Kallikratian municipalities were designed according to several guidelines; for example, each island (except Crete ) was incorporated into a single municipality, while the majority of small towns were consolidated so as to have an average municipal population of 25,000. In India ,

3286-749: The Lord Mayor of Sydney (Australia) , are elected. In Scotland the post holders are known as convenors, provosts , or lord provosts depending on the local authority. Since reforms introduced in 2000, a number of English local authorities have directly elected mayors who combine the "civic" mayor role with that of leader of the council and have significantly greater powers than either. Areas which now have directly elected mayors include cities, local government districts which cover several towns and rural areas, and since 2014 combined authority areas which include two or more local authority districts. The original Frankish mayors or majordomos were – like

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3392-425: The gavelkind system of Kent . Then the youngest son partitioned ( cyfran ) the land equally, and each brother took his share. Illegitimate sons were entitled to shares equal to those of legitimate sons, provided they had been acknowledged by the father. This provision differed the most from canon law ; as the Iorwerth text puts it: The law of the church says that no-one is entitled to patrimony ( treftadaeth ) save

3498-624: The mayor-council government in the United States. The chief executives of boroughs ( arrondissements ) in Quebec are termed mayors ( maires/mairesses in French). A borough mayor simultaneously serves as head of the borough council and as a regular councillor on the main city council. The scheduling of municipal elections in Canada varies by jurisdiction, as each province and territory has its own laws regarding municipal governance. As

3604-405: The sarhad , though the sarhad was also payable by the killer. Dirwy was a fine payable for crimes and camlwrw a smaller fine for less serious offences, while ebediw was a death duty payable to the deceased's lord. Sarhad and dirwy are still Welsh words meaning ‘insult’ and ‘fine’ respectively, The origins of the various redactions are reflected in the relative position of the rulers of

3710-1228: The "Chongqing CCP Party Chief ". Since 1997, the Chongqing Municipal People's Congress has governed Chongqing. Chongqing was previously also governed by a municipal government between 1939 and 1954, but in 1929–1939 and 1954–1997, when Chongqing was a sub-provincial city rather than a centrally administered municipality, it was governed by the Chongqing City Government. (1915–1999) (1908–1967) (1909–1976) (1909–1967) (1906–1986) (1919–2008) (1917–2007) (1922–2013) (1915–1998) (1915–2016) (born 1934) (1929–2011) (born 1924) (1929–1998) (born 1940) (born 1939) (born 1943) (born 1941) (born 1955) (born 1949) (born 1946) (born 1963) (born 1960) (born 1962) (1884–1977) (1889–1964) (1879–1954) (?–?) (1884–1950) (1886–1950) (1891–1936) (1895–1957) (1893–1949) (1885–1969) (1903–1984) (1889–1961) (1892–1958) (1884–1977) (1915–1995) (1909–1976) (1906–1986) (1919–2008) (1917–2007) (1922–2013) (1915–1998) (1915–2016) (born 1934) Mayor In many countries,

3816-459: The "justices' test book" dealing with homicide, theft and the values of wild and tame animals and other items. Within each of these sections there are tracts of varying length dealing with different subjects, for example the law of women and the law of contracts. Civil law differed from most other codes of law in the rule that on a landowner's death his land was to be shared equally between his sons, legitimate and illegitimate. This caused conflict with

3922-574: The 16th century in Sweden, king Gustav Vasa considerably centralised government and appointed the mayors directly. In 1693 king Charles XI accepted a compromise after repeated petitions from the Estate of the Burgesses over decades against the royal mayor appointments. The compromise was that the burgesses in a city could normally nominate a mayor under the supervision of the local governor. The nominee

4028-545: The 19th century, the Municipal Corporations Act 1882 , Section 15, regulated the election of mayors. The mayor was to be a fit person elected annually on 9 November by the council of the borough from among the aldermen or councilors or persons qualified to be such. His term of office was one year, but he was eligible for re-election. He might appoint a deputy to act during illness or absence, and such deputy must be either an alderman or councilor. A mayor who

4134-469: The 20th century entail any important administrative duties and was generally regarded as an honor conferred for local distinction, long service on the council, or for past services. The mayor was expected to devote much of their time to civic, ceremonial, and representational functions, and to preside over meetings for the advancement of the public welfare. The administrative duties of mayors were to act as returning officer at parliamentary elections and to chair

4240-613: The Cyfnerth Redaction, the Blegywryd Redaction and the Iorwerth Redaction. The first part of the laws deal with the rights and duties of the king and the officers of the king's court. The order of precedence is set down: first the king, then the queen, then the etifedd or edling , the heir. Next come the officers of the court; the Iorwerth Redaction identifies twenty-four, of whom sixteen are

4346-509: The Imperial Ghibelline faction – were led by podestàs . The Greek equivalent of a mayor is the demarch ( Greek : δήμαρχος , lit.   ' archon of the deme '). In Denmark all municipalities are led by a political official called borgmester , 'mayor'. The mayor of Copenhagen is however called overborgmester 'lord mayor'. In that city other mayors, borgmestre (plural), are subordinate to

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4452-399: The Iorwerth Redaction, it is stated that the claimants were entitled to the representation by both types of lawyer - cyngaws and canllaw . If both claims were deemed to have equal merit, the law allowed for the land to be shared equally between the two claimants. On the death of a landowner ( priodawr ) his immovable estate (land) passed in joint tenancy ( cytir ) to his sons, similar to

4558-457: The Latin texts women could give sureties and could under certain circumstances act as sureties. This appears to indicate a gradual improvement in the legal position of women in this respect. This is followed by land law, setting out the procedure in the event of rival ownership claims over land. Court was convened on the land itself, with both claimants calling witnesses to support their claims. In

4664-665: The Ministry of Public Works (Spanish: Ministerio de Obras Públicas ), under the direct control of the central government. Subcontracting garbage collection and management, overseeing the use of public spaces, and arbitrating neighborhood land use disputes, which are managed by the National Property office (Spanish: Oficina de Bienes Nacionales ), is also controlled by the mayor's office. Water, electrical supply and public transportation coordination are handled by several central government offices, and as such, are not under

4770-552: The Taf in Dyfed. ... And at the end of Lent the king selected from that assembly the twelve most skilled laymen of his men and the one most skilled scholar who was called Master Blegywryd, to form and interpret for him and for his kingdom, laws and usages... As each of the manuscripts dates from centuries later than Hywel's time, this statement cannot be used to date the event described above. Professor Huw Pryce has demonstrated that some of

4876-789: The Welsh meiri – lords commanding the king's lands around the Merovingian courts in Austrasia , Burgundy , and Neustria . The mayorship of Paris eventually became hereditary in the Pippinids , who later established the Carolingian dynasty . In modern France , since the Revolution , a mayor ( maire ) and a number of mayoral adjuncts ( adjoints au maire ) are selected by the municipal council from among their number. Most of

4982-520: The Welsh and the English. The triad known as the Tri Arberygl Dyn (Three Dangerous wounds of man) specifies three injuries for which ‘teyr punt a geyf y nep a archoller y gan y nep ay harchollo’ ‘He who is wounded shall have 3 pounds from him who wounds him’. These are; when a man is cut so that the brains can be seen, when a man is pierced so his entrails can be seen, and when one of

5088-538: The Welsh kingdoms. The Iorwerth Redaction manuscripts proclaim the superiority of the king of Aberffraw , chief seat of the kingdom of Gwynedd, over the others, while the manuscripts from Deheubarth claim at least equality for the king of Dinefwr , chief seat of the southern kingdom. While Welsh law lays more emphasis on the powers of the king than the Brehon Law of Ireland, this is still restricted compared to many other codes. As Moore comments: Welsh law fell into

5194-723: The Welsh law's criminal codes were superseded by the Statute of Rhuddlan in AD 1284 and its civil codes by Henry VIII 's series of Laws in Wales Acts between 1535 and 1542 . Welsh law was a form of Celtic law with many similarities to the Brehon law of Ireland and particularly the customs and terminology of the Britons of Strathclyde . It was passed down orally by jurists and bards and, according to tradition, only first codified during

5300-431: The Welsh to narrowly define "theft", however: forcible robbery was considered much less serious. Further, a hungry man who had passed at least three towns without receiving a meal could not be punished for stealing food. Aiding and abetting – including witnessing a killing and failing to protect the victim or receiving stolen property – was also punished with dirwy fines. Although Hywel's commission generally recorded

5406-527: The administrative work is left in their hands, with the full council meeting comparatively infrequently. The model was copied throughout Europe in Britain's mayors, Italy's sindacos , most of the German states' burgomasters , and Portugal's presidents of the municipal chambers . In Medieval Italy , the city-states who did not consider themselves independent principalities or dukedoms – particularly those of

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5512-536: The authority of the council between meetings. Mayoral decisions made between meetings are subject to council and may be confirmed or repealed if necessary. Mayors in Australia may be elected either directly through a ballot for the position of mayor at a local-government election, or alternatively may be elected from within the council at a meeting. The civic regalia and insignia of local government have basically remained unaltered for centuries. For ceremonial occasions

5618-404: The blood money, the victim's family was then legally bound to forgo its vengeance ( dial ). Murder by poison, however, carried the death penalty. Assault or offenses against honor were dealt with in a similar fashion, through a fine called sarhaed . However, it only applied to the upper classes: any serf who struck a free man was liable to have the offending limb removed. The crime of rape

5724-441: The board of magistrates, in Swedish known collectively as magistrat . Until 1965 there were also municipal mayors ( kommunalborgmästare ), who had these non-political administrative roles in smaller cities without a magistrates' court or magistrat . This office was an invention of the 20th century as the smaller cities in Sweden during the first half of the 20th century subsequently lost their own courts and magistrates. In

5830-440: The church, as under canon law illegitimate children could not inherit. Once a case came to court, the method used to come to a decision was usually by compurgation . Under this system the person accused or the parties to a dispute would give their version under oath, following which they had to find a number of others who would take an oath that the principal's oath could be trusted. The number of compurgators required depended on

5936-422: The city for two consecutive terms. Mayoral elections in Brazil occur in two different ways: in municipalities with more than 200,000 inhabitants, the voting happens in a two-round system , like the presidential and gubernatorial elections. In municipalities with less than 200,000 inhabitants, the voting happens in a relative majority system (with only one round). The Brazilian system works similarly to

6042-446: The consent of his kindred and coheirs ( laudatio parentum ). With the consent of the lord and the kindred, the landowner could use the living gage ( prid ). The land would be made over to a gagee ( pridwr ) for a period of four years, and if the land had not been redeemed by the gagor (owner) or his heirs at the end of the four years, the gage could then be renewed for additional four-year periods. After three renewals (or 16 years total),

6148-417: The control of the mayor. Mayors ( maires ) are elected for a six-year term by the municipal council, whose members are elected by direct universal suffrage in local elections held every six years. In Germany, local government is regulated by state statutes. Nowadays only the mayors of the three city-states (Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen ) are still elected by the respective city-state parliaments. In all

6254-500: The ear itself at 480 pennies, instead they differentiate between the loss of an ear and the loss of hearing. If the ear is lost but the victim can still hear, then the price lies at 160 pennies, whilst deafness (even without the loss of ear) retains the 480 penny value. This is a rare example of a ‘functional value being given where the loss of the function of the ear... is appreciated and not the organ itself’. Harris notes that although these members are all given equal value, it seems there

6360-535: The early or mid 13th century. There are a large number of law manuscripts, written mainly in Welsh but some in Latin, written between this period and the 16th century. Later manuscripts have been shown to reflect legal developments particularly in the Southern Welsh lordships. Apart from the full compilations there are shorter versions thought to have been working copies used by judges. However they are all usually considered to fall into three Redactions, known as

6466-544: The elder line of the family in Gwynedd and bound to display that with annual gifts. The confusion of the 11th century and the use of the Saxon loanword edling for the heir also seem to have clouded the issue. By law, the principal homestead (and presumably the realm) were to go to the king's eldest son, so long as this potential successor was not damaged in any limb, blind, deaf, or mentally retarded, and of sufficient age. If

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6572-410: The end of seven years. The total of the agweddi depended on the woman's status by birth, regardless of the actual size of the common pool of property. If the marriage broke up after the end of 7 years, the woman was entitled to half the common pool. The portion that was immediately accessible during the marriage, consisting usually of linens, dishes, and other domestic items, was known as argyvrau . If

6678-399: The father's eldest son by his wedded wife. The law of Hywel adjudges it to the youngest son as to the eldest, and judges that the father's sin and his illegality should not be set against the son for his patrimony. Dadannudd is a son's claim to land which previously belonged to his father. A landowner's right to convey land was restricted; it was only allowed under certain circumstances with

6784-427: The first half of the 11th century is an elegy for Aeddon, a landowner on Anglesey. The poet says that after his death his estate was inherited by four women who had originally been brought to Aeddon's court as captives after a raid and had found favour with him. The rule for the division of moveable property when one of a married couple died was the same for both sexes. The property was divided into two equal halves, with

6890-420: The four posts of the body (the limbs) are broken. The body parts appear to be classed for compensation based on how much use they have in society. The higher the use; the higher the compensation cost. Loss of hearing, for example, as well as loss of testes and/or penis incur very high redress rates, because their loss will cause either danger or an inability to continue lineage, which was highly important in such

6996-411: The fourth generation; and very lax treatment of divorce and legitimacy that scandalized the non-native clergy . The laws include the "laws of the court", the laws laying down the obligations and entitlements of the king and the officers of his court and the "laws of the country" dealing with every other topic. In some versions of the laws some of the material in the laws of the country are split off into

7102-681: The giving and forfeiting of gages. Another aspect is amod or contract , usually made by the two parties calling amodwyr who are witnesses to prove the terms agreed by the parties. It is laid down that: An amod breaks a rule of law. Though an amod be made contrary to law, it is necessary to keep it. In what is thought to be an archaic survival in some versions of Iorwerth it is stated that women are not entitled to act as sureties or to give sureties. Later versions of this rule in Iorwerth state that women were entitled to give sureties, and could therefore enter into contracts, though they were still not allowed to act as sureties. In Colan, Cyfnerth and some of

7208-441: The head of the executive branch of municipal government . Mayors are often elected by the respective city council and serve for a five-year term. The mayor heads the community administration, nominates members of the administration to various posts, and oversees the municipal budget. In Australian councils, the mayor is generally the member of the council who acts as a ceremonial figurehead at official functions, as well as carrying

7314-421: The highest executive official is not democratically elected, but is appointed to a public office by the city council, and is called simply kaupunginjohtaja 'city manager' or kunnanjohtaja 'municipal manager', depending on whether the municipality defines itself as a city. The term pormestari 'mayor', from Swedish borgmästare confusingly on historical grounds has referred to the highest official in

7420-477: The importance and influence of their line in an age dominated by the princes of Gwynedd. On the other hand, the Iorwerth versions, produced in Gwynedd, have exactly the same attribution of the law to Hywel and the council at Whitland as do the southern versions. It is more likely that Hywel's name was used to lend some form of “ancestral authority" to the laws. The best that may be said of Hywel's association with

7526-483: The juristic category of Volksrecht (“people's law”), which did not lay great stress on royal power, as opposed to the Kaisersrecht or Königsrecht (“king's law”) of both England and Scotland, where it was emphasised that both civil and common law were imposed by the state. For the purposes of the laws, Welsh society was divided into five classes: the rulers, including the king ( rhi or brenin ) over his kingdom and

7632-678: The king ceased after 1720 (the so-called Age of Liberty ). On 16 October 1723, it was decided after a petition that the city should present three nominees, of whom the king (or the Council of the Realm) appointed one. This was kept as a rule from then on in all later regulations and was also kept as a tradition in the 1809 Instrument of Government ( § 31 ) until 1965. In Finland , there are two mayors, in Tampere and Pirkkala . Usually in Finland

7738-479: The king's lands ( maertref ) were required to be divided among all of his acknowledged sons by whatever mother. This naturally weakened the position of the new king and that weakness, along with the long free and separate traditions of the various Welsh gwledydd , then permitted disputes and civil wars among the family appanages . Further, by the time of Hywel, the kingdoms normally taken as independent – Deheubarth , Powys , &c. – were nominally subordinate to

7844-451: The king's officers and eight the queen's officers. First in rank was the captain of the household troops, then the priest of the household, then the steward followed by the chief falconer, the court justice, the chief groom and the chamberlain. A list of additional officers follows, including such officers as the groom of the rein, the porter, the bakeress and the laundress. Each officer's entitlements and obligations are listed. It introduces

7950-409: The land passed permanently to the gagee. From the time of the fall of Rome , Wales was divided into numerous petty "kingdoms" ( gwledydd , lit. "peoples" ) which were repeatedly unified and then redivided. It is frequently stated that Welsh law demanded the division of a kingdom between all the ruler's sons, but that is a misunderstanding of the inheritance law – the crown itself was unitary but

8056-533: The law is that a folk memory recalled a revision and rejuvenation of the law during his reign. Other kings are said to have introduced later modifications to the laws, for example Bleddyn ap Cynfyn , king of Gwynedd and Powys in the mid 11th century. Some of the legal material, such as the tract on the Seven Bishop Houses of Dyfed, may be dated to a very early period of law. Other material bears comparison with Early Irish Law . Although there are

8162-486: The lord mayor with different undertakings, like ministers to a prime minister. In other municipalities in Denmark there is only a single mayor. In Norway and Sweden the mayoral title borgermester / borgmästare has now been abolished. Norway abolished it in 1937 as a title of the non-political top manager of (city) municipalities and replaced it with the title rådmann (' alderman ' or ' magistrate '), which

8268-476: The lords over their fiefs; the free Welsh, including both the pedigreed aristocracy ( boneddigion or uchelwyr ) and the yeomen together; the Welsh serfs ( taeogion , ailltion , or bileiniaid ); foreigners resident in Wales ( alltudion ); and the slaves ( caethion ). The privileges, penalties, and obligations due by law varied with the social status of the person concerned. At the time of Hywel's laws, Cymry –

8374-873: The mayor is the executive manager of a city and is elected by the Islamic City Council. The mayor is elected for a four-year term. In the Republic of Ireland , the head of a borough corporation was called "mayor" from the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840 until boroughs were abolished by the Local Government Reform Act 2014 . City council chairs are "mayor" (or "lord mayor" in the cases of Dublin and of Cork ). The Local Government Act 2001 allowed county councils to style their chairperson as "mayor" and some do so. Since 2000 there have been proposals for

8480-575: The mayor is the first citizen of a city and the head of municipal corporation which is a local government of cities with a population over one million. They have a number of roles, both ceremonial and functional. In most Indian states mayors are elected indirectly among the corporators (who are directly elected by the people of their respective wards ) of the municipal corporation, except in nine states: Bihar , Chhattisgarh , Haryana , Jharkhand , Madhya Pradesh , Odisha , Uttar Pradesh , Telangana and Uttarakhand , where mayors are elected directly by

8586-505: The mayor retaining leadership powers while the reeve was equivalent to what other municipalities called an " at-large councillor". Today most municipalities in the province now designate their elected municipal government heads as mayors, but a small handful retain the position. This continues to be the case in the following municipalities and townships : The reeve is also the chief elected official in most of Alberta 's municipal districts . The elected heads of rural municipalities (RM) in

8692-551: The meetings of the council. The mayor of a town council is officially known as "town mayor" (although in popular parlance, the word town is often dropped). The person is known as "mayor" regardless of gender; the partner of a mayor is sometimes known as the "mayoress". Since the 1974 local government reforms , mayors are also appointed to English local government districts which have borough status . This results in mayors of districts which include towns which also have separate mayors. In districts which do not have borough status,

8798-440: The modern Welsh for all of the Welsh people – apparently only applied to the free classes and not to serfs or slaves. However, none of them counted as a "foreigner" and, even if they moved from one Welsh "kingdom" ( gwlad ) to another, they did not suffer that status but were considered fully native. Those from outside Wales were considered between serfs and slaves, forbidden to offer testimony, and obliged to pledge themselves to

8904-450: The nature of the case. The judge or judges would then come to a decision. Capital punishment was only prescribed for a small number of crimes. Homicide was usually dealt with by the payment of compensation to the victim's family, while theft could be punished by death only if it was theft by stealth and the thief was caught with the goods in hand; the value of the goods stolen also had to exceed four pence. Most other offences were punished by

9010-520: The number of parishes the town had. The title alcalde was borrowed from the Arabic al-qaḍi ( قاضي ), meaning 'the judge'. The word alcalde originally was used for simple judges, as in Andalusian Arabic . Only later was it applied to the presiding municipal magistrate. This early use continued to be reflected in its other uses, such as alcaldes del crimen , the judges in

9116-461: The other states the mayors are now elected directly by the EU citizens living in that area. The post of mayor may be said to be a professional one, the mayor being the head of the local government, and requiring, in order to be eligible, training in administration. In big cities (details are regulated by state statutes) the official title is Oberbürgermeister (mayor). In these cities, a "simple" mayor

9222-473: The outcome of legal proceedings dating from the 9th century and written in Welsh, and though it is not a law manual it does indicate the use of Welsh legal terms at that time. The earliest manuscripts known are Peniarth 28 , written in Latin but now generally thought to be a translation of a Welsh original, and Peniarth 29, known as the Black Book of Chirk , written in Welsh. These are thought to date from

9328-469: The prologues were developed in response to attacks on Welsh law by Church men and Nobles who wished to gain rights more akin to those enjoyed by Ecclesiastics and the aristocracy in England. In discussing Hywel's association with the law, K. L. Maund suggests: it is not impossible that the association of Hywel with the law reflects more on twelfth- and thirteenth century south Welsh attempts to re-establish

9434-488: The provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan are also referred to as a reeve. The mayor of a municipality in the Dominican Republic is called indistinctly alcalde or síndico . The latter name is preferred to avoid confusing the title with the similar-sounding alcaide (lit. ' prison warden '). Such a person is the governor of the municipality whose township elected him (or her) by direct vote for

9540-495: The public. In Indonesia , mayor ( Indonesian : wali kota , formerly called walikotamadya and walikota ) is a regional head of a city or town. A mayor has the same level as a regent ( bupati ), head of a regency ( kabupaten ). Basically, a mayor has the duty and authority to lead the implementation of the policies established by the region along with the city council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah Kota , DPRD Kota; formerly called Tier 2-DPRD ( DPRD Tingkat II )). A mayor

9646-438: The registry office and in the city courts (abolished in 1993) as in Sweden, not the city manager. In addition, pormestari is also an honorary title, which may be given for distinguished service in the post of the city manager. The city manager of Helsinki is called ylipormestari , which translates to 'chief mayor', for historical reasons. Furthermore, the term city manager may be seen translated as mayor . The office of

9752-449: The reign of Hywel Dda in the mid-10th century. The earliest surviving manuscripts, however, are in Latin , date from the early 13th century, and show marked regional differences. The law is only known to have been revised by a few rulers (particularly Bleddyn ap Cynfyn , who was credited with revisions retained in the kingdom of Powys ) but was obviously updated by jurists in response to changing jurisdictions and circumstances, so that

9858-711: The role of civic leader is taken by the chairman of the council, who undertakes exactly the same functions as a mayor of a district with borough status. Many major cities in the United Kingdom and throughout the Commonwealth have a lord mayor , a special recognition bestowed by the sovereign . Although the position is often ceremonial, with executive responsibilities under the control of an elected mayor, lord mayors in several Commonwealth cities including Belfast , Cardiff , Brisbane , and Dublin hold both ceremonial and executive duties. Some lord mayors, including

9964-410: The surviving manuscripts cannot be considered an accurate portrayal of Hywel's first code. Notable features of Welsh law include the collective responsibility of kindreds ( cenedl ) for their members; the gavelkind inheritance of land among all and only male descendants; a status-based system of blood money ( galanas ); slavery and serfdom; the inability of foreigners to naturalise earlier than

10070-416: The surviving partner keeping one half and the dying partner being free to give bequests from the other half. Murder was regarded as an offence against the family rather than against society or the state. It was normally dealt with by the payment of blood money ( galanas ) by the killer and his extended family to the family of the deceased. The base sum was computed by the social status and position of

10176-547: The term Oberbürgermeister was used for the head of the state government of West Berlin until 1951 and was also used in East Berlin from 1948 to January 1991. Mayors ( δήμαρχοι , dēmarchoi , sing. δήμαρχος , dēmarchos ) in Greece were previously elected every four years in local elections and are the head of various municipal governments in which the state is divided. Starting in 2014, mayors are elected for

10282-466: The title of portreeve for considerably more than a century after the Norman Conquest . This official was elected by popular choice, a privilege secured from King John . By the beginning of the 12th century, the title of portreeve gave way to that of mayor as the designation of the chief officer of London, followed around 1190 by that of Winchester . Other boroughs adopted the title later. In

10388-453: The top of the finger to the first knuckle is valued (in the same texts) at 26 2/3 of a penny. The price of a fingernail as it is valued in Iorwerth and Cyfnerth is 0.8% of the galanas , and intriguingly the thumbnail in the Wessex tariff also stands at 0.8% of the wergild value for the man.[7] Harris argues that these similar percentages reflect the co-existence of two legal systems in Wales;

10494-417: The traditions of the country, one modification they made was to end the right of nobles to trial by combat, finding it unjust. Medieval Welsh law placed a high value on compensation for any breach of the law. In particular, high and detailed compensation values were given for each limb of the body. There are nine limbs of equal value (that is the hands, the eyes, the lips, the feet, and the nose) each of which

10600-411: The victim. The galanas of the king of Deheubarth was set at an impossibly long line of impossibly perfect cattle to ensure it could never be met; the family of a murdered slave, meanwhile, received no galanas , although the slave's owner was to be compensated for the loss. This sum might then be modified in certain situations (for example, an attack from ambush doubled the base fine). Upon the payment of

10706-406: Was a fee payable to the woman's lord on the loss of her virginity, whether on marriage or otherwise. Cowyll , or maiden-fee, was a payment due to the woman from her husband on the morning after the marriage, marking her transition from virgin to married woman. Dower ( agweddi ) was the amount of the common pool of property owned by the couple which was due to the woman if the couple separated before

10812-487: Was absent from the borough for more than two months became disqualified and had to vacate his office. A mayor was ex officio a justice of the peace for the borough during his year of office and the following year. He received such remuneration as the council thought reasonable. These provisions have now been repealed. In medieval Wales, the Laws of Hywel Dda codified the mayor ( Latin : maior ; Welsh : maer ) as

10918-432: Was not entitled to give away, for being found with another man, or for wishing a blemish on her husband's beard. If he beat her for any other cause, she was entitled to the payment of sarhad . If the husband found her with another man and beat her, he was not entitled to any further compensation. According to the law, women were not allowed to inherit land. However, there were exceptions, even at an early date. A poem dated to

11024-481: Was that the woman would be given to a man by her kindred; the abnormal way was that the woman could elope with a man without the consent of her kindred. In this case her kindred could compel her to return if she was still a virgin, but if she was not she could not be compelled to return. If the relationship lasted for seven years she had the same entitlements as if she had been given by her kin. A number of payments are connected with marriage. Amobr , or commutation-fee,

11130-554: Was then to be presented to and appointed by the king, but the king could appoint mayors directly in exceptional cases. This was codified in the Instrument of Government of 1720 and on 8 July the same year Riksrådet ("the Council of the Realm") decided, after a petition from the said Estate, that only the city could present nominees, not the king or anyone else. Thus the supervision of the local governor and directly appointed mayors by

11236-519: Was treated as a theft and remedied by the payment of another fine ( dirwy ), payment of which restored the woman's virginity for legal purposes. A man who could not pay the fine was to have his testicles removed. Similarly, a convicted thief was imprisoned in the first instance, but a serf convicted for the third time was to have his hand removed. (Assuming he was not caught in the act: thieves caught with goods in hand more valuable than four ceiniogau were liable for hanging. ) Such strong penalties led

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