Misplaced Pages

#473526

53-476: As well as 'category', synonyms or near-synonyms for 'class' include 'type', 'species', 'order', 'concept', 'taxon', 'group', 'identification' and 'division'. The meaning of the word 'classification' (and its synonyms) may take on one of several related meanings. It may encompass both classification and the creation of classes, as for example in 'the task of categorizing pages in Misplaced Pages'; this overall activity

106-504: A controlled vocabulary of contributor roles. Known as CRediT ( Contributor Roles Taxonomy ) , this is an example of a flat, non-hierarchical taxonomy; however, it does include an optional, broad classification of the degree of contribution: lead , equal or supporting . Amy Brand and co-authors summarise their intended outcome as: Identifying specific contributions to published research will lead to appropriate credit, fewer author disputes, and fewer disincentives to collaboration and

159-614: A " universal language " was frequently examined in the 17th century, also notably by the English philosopher John Wilkins in his work An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language (1668), from which the classification scheme in Roget 's Thesaurus ultimately derives. Taxonomy in biology encompasses the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. Uses of taxonomy include: Uses of taxonomy in business and economics include: Vegas et al. make

212-616: A 1997 article in JAMA , the Journal of the American Medical Association for a radical conceptual and systematic change, to reflect the realities of multiple authorship and to buttress accountability. We propose dropping the outmoded notion of author in favor of the more useful and realistic one of contributor. In 2012, several major academic and scientific publishing bodies mounted Project CRediT to develop

265-400: A certain type (for example, John is a bachelor ), while universally quantified conditionals express the notion that a type is a subtype of another type (for example, " A dog is a mammal" , which means the same as " All dogs are mammals" ). The "has-a" relationship is quite different: an elephant has a trunk; a trunk is a part, not a subtype of elephant. The study of part-whole relationships

318-444: A compelling case to advance the knowledge in the field of software engineering through the use of taxonomies. Similarly, Ore et al. provide a systematic methodology to approach taxonomy building in software engineering related topics. Several taxonomies have been proposed in software testing research to classify techniques, tools, concepts and artifacts. The following are some example taxonomies: Engström et al. suggest and evaluate

371-448: A larger variety of relation types. Mathematically, a hierarchical taxonomy is a tree structure of classifications for a given set of objects. It is also named containment hierarchy . At the top of this structure is a single classification, the root node, that applies to all objects. Nodes below this root are more specific classifications that apply to subsets of the total set of classified objects. The progress of reasoning proceeds from

424-434: A method based on dichotomy, which was rejected by Aristotle and replaced by the method of definitions based on genus, species, and specific difference. The method of facet analysis (cf., faceted classification ) is primarily based on logical division. This approach tends to classify according to "essential" characteristics, a widely discussed and criticized concept (cf., essentialism ). These methods may overall be related to

477-490: A single child with multi-parents, for example, "Car" might appear with both parents "Vehicle" and "Steel Mechanisms"; to some however, this merely means that 'car' is a part of several different taxonomies. A taxonomy might also simply be organization of kinds of things into groups, or an alphabetical list; here, however, the term vocabulary is more appropriate. In current usage within knowledge management , taxonomies are considered narrower than ontologies since ontologies apply

530-600: A taxonomy is to help users more easily find what they are searching for. This may be effected in ways that include a library classification system and a search engine taxonomy . The word was coined in 1813 by the Swiss botanist A. P. de Candolle and is irregularly compounded from the Greek τάξις , taxis 'order' and νόμος , nomos 'law', connected by the French form -o- ; the regular form would be taxinomy , as used in

583-408: Is mereology . Taxonomies are often represented as is-a hierarchies where each level is more specific than the level above it (in mathematical language is "a subset of" the level above). For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as mammal , which is a subset of animal , and dogs and cats , which are subsets of mammal . This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because

SECTION 10

#1732766172474

636-416: Is an approach based solely on observable, measurable similarities and differences of the things to be classified. Classification is based on overall similarity: The elements that are most alike in most attributes are classified together. But it is based on statistics, and therefore does not fulfill the criteria of logical division (e.g. to produce classes, that are mutually exclusive and jointly coextensive with

689-511: Is important to notice that empiricism is not the same as empirical study, but a certain ideal of doing empirical studies. With the exception of the logical approaches they all are based on empirical studies, but are basing their studies on different philosophical principles). (3) Historical and hermeneutical approaches including Ereshefsky's "historical classification" and (4) Pragmatic, functionalist and teleological approaches (not covered by Ereshefsky). In addition there are combined approaches (e.g.,

742-574: Is listed under Taxonomy . It may refer exclusively to the underlying scheme of classes (which otherwise may be called a taxonomy). Or it may refer to the label given to an object by the classifier. Classification is a part of many different kinds of activities and is studied from many different points of view including medicine , philosophy , law , anthropology , biology , taxonomy , cognition , communications , knowledge organization , psychology , statistics , machine learning , economics and mathematics . Methodological work aimed at improving

795-399: Is not assigned to the concept of France (whatever that might be).” Smith's alternative to concepts as units is based on a realist orientation, when scientists make successful claims about the types of entities that exist in reality, they are referring to objectively existing entities which realist philosophers call universals or natural kinds. Smith's main argument - with which many followers of

848-399: Is of little use, since we seldom have anything to affirm in common of the plants which have a given number of stamens and pistils." "The ends of scientific classification are best answered, when the objects are formed into groups respecting which a greater number of general propositions can be made, and those propositions more important, than could be made respecting any other groups into which

901-910: Is referred to is that in biological classification the anatomical traits of organisms is one kind of classification, the classification in relation to the evolution of species is another (in the section below, we expand these two fundamental sorts of classification to four). Hull adds that in biological classification, evolution supplies the theoretical orientation. Ereshefsky (2000) presented and discussed three general philosophical schools of classification: "essentialism, cluster analysis, and historical classification. Essentialism sorts entities according to causal relations rather than their intrinsic qualitative features." These three categories may, however, be considered parts of broader philosophies. Four main approaches to classification may be distinguished: (1) logical and rationalist approaches including "essentialism"; (2) empiricist approaches including cluster analysis (It

954-412: Is the classification of items which emphasis the goals, purposes, consequences, interests, values and politics of classification. It is, for example, classifying animals into wild animals, pests, domesticated animals and pets. Also kitchenware (tools, utensils, appliances, dishes, and cookware used in food preparation, or the serving of food) is an example of a classification which is not based on any of

1007-412: Is the systematic classification involved in the design and utilization of taxonomic schemes such as the biological classification of animals and plants by genus and species. Two of the predominant types of relationships in knowledge-representation systems are predication and the universally quantified conditional . Predication relationships express the notion that an individual entity is an example of

1060-505: The German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz , following the work of the thirteenth-century Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull on his Ars generalis ultima , a system for procedurally generating concepts by combining a fixed set of ideas, sought to develop an alphabet of human thought . Leibniz intended his characteristica universalis to be an "algebra" capable of expressing all conceptual thought. The concept of creating such

1113-536: The Greek reborrowing ταξινομία . Misplaced Pages categories form a taxonomy, which can be extracted by automatic means. As of 2009 , it has been shown that a manually-constructed taxonomy, such as that of computational lexicons like WordNet , can be used to improve and restructure the Misplaced Pages category taxonomy. In a broader sense, taxonomy also applies to relationship schemes other than parent-child hierarchies, such as network structures . Taxonomies may then include

SECTION 20

#1732766172474

1166-799: The above-mentioned three methods, but clearly on pragmatic or functional criteria. Bonaccorsi, et al. (2019) is about the general theory of functional classification and applications of this approach for patent classification. Although the examples may suggest that pragmatic classifications are primitive compared to established scientific classifications, it must be considered in relation to the pragmatic and critical theory of knowledge, which consider all knowledge as influences by interests. Ridley (1986) wrote: "teleological classification. Classification of groups by their shared purposes, or functions, in life - where purpose can be identified with adaptation. An imperfectly worked-out, occasionally suggested, theoretically possible principle of classification that differs from

1219-518: The accuracy of a classifier and no general method for determining which method should be used in which circumstances. Different fields have taken different approaches, even in binary classification. In pattern recognition , error rate is popular. The Gini coefficient and KS statistic are widely used in the credit scoring industry. Sensitivity and specificity are widely used in epidemiology and medicine. Precision and recall are widely used in information retrieval. Classifier accuracy depends greatly on

1272-409: The accuracy of a classifier is commonly divided between cases where there are exactly two classes ( binary classification ) and cases where there are three or more classes ( multiclass classification ). Unlike in decision theory , it is assumed that a classifier repeats the classification task over and over. And unlike a lottery , it is assumed that each classification can be either right or wrong; in

1325-526: The allocation of things to the classes ( classification ). Originally, taxonomy referred only to the classification of organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Today it also has a more general sense. It may refer to the classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such work. Thus a taxonomy can be used to organize species, documents, videos or anything else. A taxonomy organizes taxonomic units known as "taxa" (singular "taxon")." Many are hierarchies . One function of

1378-399: The characteristics of the data to be classified. There is no single classifier that works best on all given problems (a phenomenon that may be explained by the no-free-lunch theorem ). Taxonomy Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme of classes (a taxonomy) and

1431-462: The class they divide). Some people will argue that this is not classification/taxonomy at all, but such an argument must consider the definitions of classification (see above). These methods may overall be related to the empiricist theory of knowledge. Genealogical classification is classification of items according to their common heritage. This must also be done on the basis of some empirical characteristics, but these characteristics are developed by

1484-422: The close relationship between classification theory and concept theory. A main opponent of concepts as units is Barry Smith. Arp, Smith and Spear (2015) discuss ontologies and criticize the conceptualist understanding. The book writes (7): “The code assigned to France, for example, is ISO 3166 – 2:FR and the code is assigned to France itself — to the country that is otherwise referred to as Frankreich or Ranska. It

1537-683: The compound is borrowed into this other language or a modern descendant. In the West this primarily occurs with classical compounds , formed on Latin or Ancient Greek roots, which may then be borrowed into a Romance language or Modern Greek. Latin is sufficiently widespread that Latinate terms coined in a non-Romance language (such as English or German) and then borrowed by a Romance language (such as French or Spanish) are not conspicuous, but modern coinages on Ancient Greek roots borrowed into Modern Greek are, and include terms such as τηλεγράφημα tilegráfima ('telegram'). These are very common . This process

1590-436: The concept theory agree - seems to be that classes cannot be determined by introspective methods, but must be based on scientific and scholarly research. Whether units are called concepts or universals, the problem is to decide when a thing (say a "blackbird") should be considered a natural class. In the case of blackbirds, for example, recent DNA analysis have reconsidered the concept (or universal) "blackbird" and found that what

1643-445: The criteria for ordering these basic units into a classification". There is a widespread opinion in knowledge organization and related fields that such classes corresponds to concepts. We can, for example, classify "waterfowls" into the classes "ducks", "geese", and "swans"; we can also say, however, that the concept “waterfowl” is a generic broader term in relation to the concepts "ducks", "geese", and "swans". This example demonstrates

Classification - Misplaced Pages Continue

1696-473: The designated subject as being importantly similar to other entities bearing the same designation; that is, we classify them together. Similarly the use of predicative phrases classifies actions or properties as being of a particular kind. We call this conceptual classification, since it refers to the classification involved in conceptualizing our experiences and surroundings" About systematic classification Suppe wrote: "A second, narrower sense of classification

1749-480: The discussion of their relation to the scientific taxonomy can be found in Scott Atran 's Cognitive Foundations of Natural History. Folk taxonomies of organisms have been found in large part to agree with scientific classification, at least for the larger and more obvious species, which means that it is not the case that folk taxonomies are based purely on utilitarian characteristics. In the seventeenth century

1802-427: The general to the more specific. By contrast, in the context of legal terminology, an open-ended contextual taxonomy is employed—a taxonomy holding only with respect to a specific context. In scenarios taken from the legal domain, a formal account of the open-texture of legal terms is modeled, which suggests varying notions of the "core" and "penumbra" of the meanings of a concept. The progress of reasoning proceeds from

1855-555: The historicist theory of knowledge. One of the main schools of historical classification is cladistics , which is today dominant in biological taxonomy, but also applied to other domains. The historical and hermeneutical approaches is not restricted to the development of the object of classification (e.g., animal species) but is also concerned with the subject of classification (the classifiers) and their embeddedness in scientific traditions and other human cultures. Pragmatic classification (and functional and teleological classification)

1908-505: The ideal, he recognized that his own system (at least partly) represented an artificial classification. John Stuart Mill explained the artificial nature of the Linnaean classification and suggested the following definition of a natural classification: "The Linnæan arrangement answers the purpose of making us think together of all those kinds of plants, which possess the same number of stamens and pistils; but to think of them in that manner

1961-621: The influence of the cladistic paradigm - and have demanded new classifications. Smith's example of France demands an explanation. First, France is not a general concept, but an individual concept. Next, the legal definition of France is determined by the conventions that France has made with other countries. It is still a concept, however, as Leclercq (1978) demonstrates with the corresponding concept Europe . Hull (1998) continued: "Two fundamentally different sorts of classification are those that reflect structural organization and those that are systematically related to historical development." What

2014-765: The larger. Such a hyponym, in turn, may have further subcategories for which it is a hypernym. In the simple biology example, dog is a hypernym with respect to its subcategory collie , which in turn is a hypernym with respect to Fido which is one of its hyponyms. Typically, however, hypernym is used to refer to subcategories rather than single individuals. Researchers reported that large populations consistently develop highly similar category systems. This may be relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures such as folksonomies and language or human communication, and sense-making in general. Hull (1998) suggested "The fundamental elements of any classification are its theoretical commitments, basic units and

2067-435: The originating language in a different form or with a different meaning. A reborrowed word is sometimes called a Rückwanderer (German, a 'returner'). The result is generally a doublet , where the reborrowed word exists alongside the original word, though in other cases the original word may have died out. Alternatively, a specific sense of a borrowed word can be reborrowed as a semantic loan ; for example, English pioneer

2120-426: The rationalist theory of knowledge. "Empiricism alone is not enough: a healthy advance in taxonomy depends on a sound theoretical foundation" Phenetics or numerical taxonomy is by contrast bottom-up classification, where the starting point is a set of items or individuals, which are classified by putting those with shared characteristics as members of a narrow class and proceeding upward. Numerical taxonomy

2173-401: The same things could be distributed." "A classification thus formed is properly scientific or philosophical, and is commonly called a Natural, in contradistinction to a Technical or Artificial, classification or arrangement." Ridley (1986) provided the following definitions: Reborrowing Reborrowing is the process where a word travels from one language to another and then back to

Classification - Misplaced Pages Continue

2226-510: The sharing of data and code. CRediT comprises 14 specific contributor roles using the following defined terms: The taxonomy is an open standard conformiing to the OpenStand principles, and is published under a Creative Commons licence. Websites with a well designed taxonomy or hierarchy are easily understood by users, due to the possibility of users developing a mental model of the site structure. Guidelines for writing taxonomy for

2279-427: The so-called evolutionary taxonomy ", which mixes historical and empiricist principles). Logical division (top-down classification or downward classification) is an approach that divides a class into subclasses and then divide subclasses into their subclasses, and so on, which finally forms a tree of classes. The root of the tree is the original class, and the leaves of the tree are the final classes. Plato advocated

2332-413: The specific objects are considered as instances of a concept. For example, Fido is-an instance of the concept dog and Fluffy is-a cat . In linguistics , is-a relations are called hyponymy . When one word describes a category, but another describe some subset of that category, the larger term is called a hypernym with respect to the smaller, and the smaller is called a "hyponym" with respect to

2385-430: The specific to the more general. Anthropologists have observed that taxonomies are generally embedded in local cultural and social systems, and serve various social functions. Perhaps the most well-known and influential study of folk taxonomies is Émile Durkheim 's The Elementary Forms of Religious Life . A more recent treatment of folk taxonomies (including the results of several decades of empirical research) and

2438-448: The theory of evolution. Charles Darwin's main contribution to classification theory of not just his claim "... all true classification is genealogical ..." but that he provided operational guidance for classification. Genealogical classification is not restricted to biology, but is also much used in, for example, classification of languages, and may be considered a general approach to classification." These methods may overall be related to

2491-422: The theory of measurement, classification is understood as measurement against a nominal scale. Thus it is possible to try to measure the accuracy of a classifier. Measuring the accuracy of a classifier allows a choice to be made between two alternative classifiers. This is important both when developing a classifier and in choosing which classifier to deploy. There are however many different methods for evaluating

2544-443: The two main such principles, phenetic and phylogenetic classification ". Natural classification is a concept closely related to the concept natural kind . Carl Linnaeus is often recognized as the first scholar to clearly have differentiated "artificial" and "natural" classifications A natural classification is one, using Plato's metaphor, that is “carving nature at its joints” Although Linnaeus considered natural classification

2597-508: The use of a taxonomy to bridge the communication between researchers and practitioners engaged in the area of software testing. They have also developed a web-based tool to facilitate and encourage the use of the taxonomy. The tool and its source code are available for public use. Uses of taxonomy in education include: Uses of taxonomy in safety include: Citing inadequacies with current practices in listing authors of papers in medical research journals, Drummond Rennie and co-authors called in

2650-405: The web include: Frederick Suppe distinguished two senses of classification: a broad meaning, which he called "conceptual classification" and a narrow meaning, which he called "systematic classification". About conceptual classification Suppe wrote: "Classification is intrinsic to the use of language, hence to most if not all communication. Whenever we use nominative phrases we are classifying

2703-407: The words might move through different languages before coming back to the originating language. The single move from one language to the other is called "loan" (see loanword ). Reborrowing is the result of more than one loan, when the final recipient language is the same as the originating one. A similar process occurs when a word is coined in a language based on roots from another language, and then

SECTION 50

#1732766172474

2756-426: Was borrowed from Middle French in the sense of "digger, foot soldier, pedestrian", then acquired the sense of "early colonist, innovator" in English, which was reborrowed into French. In other cases the term may be calqued (loan translated) at some stage, such as English ready-to-wear → French prêt-à-porter (1951) → English prêt-à-porter (1957). In some cases the borrowing process can be more complicated and

2809-498: Was formerly considered one species (with subspecies) are in reality many different species, which just have chosen similar characteristics to adopt to their ecological niches. An important argument for considering concepts the basis of classification is that concepts are subject to change and that they changes when scientific revolutions occur. Our concepts of many birds, for example, have changed with recent development in DNA analysis and

#473526