66-399: Cleburne may refer to: Places [ edit ] Cleburne, Texas Cleburne County, Alabama Cleburne County, Arkansas People with the surname [ edit ] Patrick Cleburne (1828–1864), Irish Confederate general See also [ edit ] City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc. Topics referred to by
132-552: A special-use permit . Cleburne is on the fringe of the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex . Growth in the area has been primarily attributed to suburbanization . On May 15, 2013 , Cleburne was hit by a powerful tornado that cut a mile-wide path through part of the city and damaged about 600 homes and two schools. The National Weather Service rated it EF-3, which has winds between 136 and 165 miles per hour (219 and 266 km/h). No deaths or severe injuries were reported. Cleburne
198-631: A 178-foot (54 m) tunnel. By January the escapees were caught, in part because a river they intended to travel down by raft turned out to be a dry river bed. The OPMG began a formal reeducation program for German prisoners in fall 1943. Named the Special Projects Division (SPD) and directed by a group of university professors, the program published der Ruf ( The Call ), a prison newspaper edited by sympathetic POWs, and distributed books banned in Nazi Germany . The effort
264-552: A 5 block radius to their Courthouse. The Johnson County Chisholm Trail Museum is an outdoor museum located in the western part of Cleburne at the site of Wardville, the original county seat of Johnson County, established in 1854. The original courthouse there is the oldest log courthouse in Texas. It has a one-room schoolhouse, a jail with the original iron doors from the Wardville jail, a blacksmith shop, an original mule barn, and
330-621: A Supercenter retail outlet and a distribution center. Together, those facilities employ 914 workers. The Cleburne Independent School District is a major employer with 968 employees. Local government is also a major employer, providing 348 jobs, and Johnson County has 598 employees in the city. Johns Manville, Texas Resources Harris Methodist Hospital, Greenbrier rail service (operating at the rail yards previously occupied by Burlington Northern Santa Fe), Supreme Corporation of Texas, and Broan-Nutone are among other major private-sector employers. A recent natural gas boom has now brought related companies to
396-418: A few prisoners even volunteered to fight in the war against Japan. Camps built libraries to organize their reading material and prisoners often purchased their own, but they never had enough reading material, with an average of one half book per prisoner. The YMCA printed thousands of copies of books for the camps, and even provided bookbinding material so camps could repair them due to frequent use. As
462-601: A garden. The Geneva Convention's mandate of equal treatment for prisoners also meant they were paid American military wages. They could work on farms or elsewhere only if they were also paid for their labor, and officers could not be compelled to work. As the United States sent millions of soldiers overseas, the resulting shortage of labor eventually meant that German POWs worked toward the Allied war effort by helping out in canneries, mills, farms, and other places deemed
528-536: A highly effective tool of reeducation after American entry into World War II , the libraries of the POW camps very often included Berman-Fischer in Stockholm 's paperback editions of great works of recent German literature that remained strictly banned under censorship in Nazi Germany . Particularly in demand among POWs were Exilliteratur by anti-Nazi refugee writers such as Erich Maria Remarque 's All Quiet on
594-488: A limited POW population in the last world war, and was unprepared for basic logistical considerations such as food, clothing and housing requirements of the prisoners. Almost all German-speaking Americans were engaged overseas directly in combat efforts, and the American government feared the presence of Germans on U.S. soil would create a security problem and raise fear among civilians. Despite many "wild rumors" about how
660-835: A list exchanged through the Red Cross became available. After the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps , films of the atrocities of the Holocaust were shown to the prisoners with armed Military Police present. The footage engendered shock, anger, and disbelief; amazed and disbelieving prisoners nicknamed them knochen films ("films of bones"). However, many prisoners accepted the films as factual; after compulsory viewing of an atrocity film, 1,000 prisoners at Camp Butner burned their German uniforms. Prisoners at other camps called on Germany to surrender. In an idea seriously considered but ultimately rejected by American military officials,
726-634: A minimal security risk. A typical day for a German prisoner in Garden Grove, California : Prisoners could not be used in work directly related to the military or in dangerous conditions. The minimum pay for enlisted soldiers was $ 0.80 (equivalent to $ 15 in 2023) a day, roughly equivalent to the pay of an American private. In 1943 the government estimated that prisoner labor cost 50 to 75% of normal free labor. While language differences and risk of escape or unreliable work were disadvantages, prisoner workers were available immediately on demand and in
SECTION 10
#1732776861325792-756: A restored stagecoach from two early John Wayne movies. There is also the Big Bear Native American Museum. It was recently named as one of Texas' top 10 open-air museums. Other local museums include the Cleburne Railroad Museum and the Layland Museum . Cleburne State Park is in a hilly area 12 miles (19 km) west of the city center. It has fishing in Cedar Lake, camping, swimming, and hiking trails. Major employers include Walmart , which maintains
858-528: A route to Egan in 1902, and the Trinity and Brazos Valley, nicknamed the Boll Weevil, operated from Cleburne from 1904 to 1924. Cleburne was the site of a prisoner-of-war camp for German soldiers during World War 2 . The POWs worked as laborers on local farms. In 1985, the city was the petitioner in the U.S. Supreme Court case City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc. after being sued over
924-417: A time. They also received daily rations of cigarettes and frequently meat, both rationed for American civilians . (Cigarettes were sold in the prisoner canteen for less than outside the camp, so guards were sometimes amenable to being bribed with them.) One German later recalled that he gained 57 pounds (26 kg) in two years as a prisoner. Despite complaints to International Red Cross inspectors about
990-547: A week; if the camp did not have a projector, prisoners often pooled their savings to purchase one. The cinema served as an important reeducation and propaganda tool as well as entertainment, with Hollywood anti-Nazi films, cartoons such as " Herr Meets Hare ", and the Why We Fight series used; American World War II films shown mostly dealt with the Pacific War . Near the end of the war, approved German films from
1056-516: Is a 158-seat theatre-in-the-round, which operates year-round in Cleburne's historic downtown . The troupe provides family-friendly musicals and comedies, and has been the recipient of numerous awards for theatrical excellence since opening in November 2006. Historic Downtown Cleburne has 7 Antique Malls, numerous Boutiques and Restaurants , a local bookstore and Songbird Live , a music venue all in
1122-413: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Cleburne, Texas Cleburne ( / ˈ k l iː b ɜːr n / KLEE -burn ) is a city in and the county seat of Johnson County, Texas , United States. As of the 2020 census, its population was 31,352. The city is named in honor of Patrick Cleburne , a Confederate general. Lake Pat Cleburne ,
1188-739: Is primarily made of stone and was constructed by the Public Works Administration workers in 1934. Football and soccer are played on this field. German prisoners of war in the United States Members of the German military were interned as prisoners of war in the United States during World War I and World War II . In all, 425,000 German prisoners lived in 700 camps throughout the United States during World War II. Hostilities ended six months after
1254-735: Is west of the center of Johnson County, 30 miles (48 km) south of the center of Fort Worth . It is bordered to the north by Joshua and to the east by Keene . U.S. Route 67 runs through the north side of the city on a freeway bypass; the highway leads east 12 miles (19 km) to Alvarado and west 53 miles (85 km) to Stephenville . State Highways 171 and 174 run through the center of Cleburne on Main Street. Highway 171 leads northwest 19 miles (31 km) to Cresson and southeast 29 miles (47 km) to Hillsboro , while Highway 174 leads north 15 miles (24 km) to Burleson and southwest 38 miles (61 km) to Meridian . According to
1320-472: The Afrika Korps , who had been captured early in the war, during Germany's greatest military successes, often led work stoppages, intimidated other prisoners, and held secret kangaroo court for those accused of disloyalty. Those convicted were sometimes attacked or killed in a process known as the "Holy Ghost"; most prisoner "suicides" were likely murders. The U.S. military executed 14 Germans after
1386-783: The Allies treated their prisoners, some Germans were pleased to be captured by the British or Americans—fear of being captured by the Soviets was widespread, as more than a million German POWs died in Soviet captivity. The prisoners were usually shipped in Liberty Ships returning home that would otherwise be empty, with as many as 30,000 arriving per month to New York or Virginia, where they were processed for distribution to camps. While they risked being sunk by their own U-boats on
SECTION 20
#17327768613251452-683: The Chattanooga National Cemetery , and Fort Lyon , Colorado. After the United States entered World War II in 1941, the government of the United Kingdom requested American help with housing prisoners of war due to a housing shortage in Britain, asking for the US to take 175,000 prisoners. The United States reluctantly agreed to house them, although it was not prepared. Its military had only brief experience with
1518-500: The Confessing Church , said that while aware of Nazi persecution of Jews and the existence of concentration camps, he only learned of the extent of the Holocaust from media reports after the camps' liberation. Despite the delay in repatriation, Krammer reported that "I've yet to meet a German prisoner who doesn't tell me that it was the time of their lives." Most Germans left the United States with positive feelings about
1584-683: The United States Census Bureau , Cleburne has a total area of 32.5 square miles (84.1 km ), of which 29.6 square miles (76.6 km ) are land and 2.9 square miles (7.4 km ), or 8.86%, are covered by water. East and West Buffalo Creek run through the center of Cleburne, flowing south to the Nolan River and part of the Brazos River watershed. As of the 2020 United States census , there were 31,352 people, 10,982 households, and 7,441 families residing in
1650-639: The Cleburne area are Adams, Coleman, Cooke, Gerard, Irving, Marti. and Santa Fe (kindergarten through grade 5). A private school ( Cleburne Christian Academy ) serving age 4 through grade 12 is also available. Hill College 's Johnson County Campus is in Cleburne. Cleburne High School is in UIL district 8-5A. Cleburne's most notable sports stadium, the Yellow Jacket Stadium is nicknamed "the Rock". It
1716-617: The German Ministry of Education and the OKW sent through the Red Cross detailed procedures for students to receive credit at German high schools and universities. Some prisoners took correspondence classes through local universities, and German universities also accepted their credits after returning home. Relying on Germans to discipline themselves, while efficient, also permitted committed groups of Nazi prisoners to exist despite American attempts to identify and separate them. Members of
1782-621: The German officers and NCOs who strictly maintained discipline. After an American guard who had fought in the Battle of the Bulge killed prisoners in Texas, other guards were given psychiatric tests and removed from duty if necessary. The Germans woke their own men, marched them to and from meals, and prepared them for work; their routine successfully recreated the feel of military discipline for prisoners. Prisoners had friendly interaction with local civilians and sometimes were allowed outside
1848-676: The Nazi concentration camps. Scholar Arnold Krammer noted that in his years of interviewing prisoners he never met one who admitted to being a Nazi, and most Germans had some knowledge of the camps; however, how much those captured in North Africa knew of the Eastern Front —where most atrocities occurred—is unclear. Funke, whom the Gestapo had considered politically unreliable before capture in North Africa because of his participation in
1914-492: The OPMG opposed the program, in part because they believed that changing most adults' basic philosophies and values was impossible and, if successful, might cause them to choose Communism as an alternative. The American professors were almost entirely ignorant of German language or culture, as well as military and prison life. The reading material they prepared was overly intellectual and did not appeal to most prisoners, and der Ruf
1980-684: The U.S. and that "We all had been won over to friendly relations with" the U.S. Indeed, unauthorized fraternization between American women and German prisoners was sometimes a problem. Several camps held social receptions with local American girls, and some Germans met their future wives as prisoners. When I was captured I weighed 128 pounds [58 kg]. After two years as an American POW weighed 185 [84 kg]. I had gotten so fat you could no longer see my eyes. Many prisoners found that their living conditions as prisoners were better than as civilians in cold-water flats in Germany. All prisoners ate
2046-535: The United Kingdom. (see also German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom ). In May 1945 the OPMG limited available food and ended canteen food sales. Civilians had complained that the prisoners were eating too well; as the Geneva Convention no longer applied, and because of the atrocities discovered at concentration camps, prisoners' rations were cut and work loads were increased. Before being sent home prisoners were required to watch documentaries of
Cleburne - Misplaced Pages Continue
2112-497: The United States are otherwise what the Associated Press later called an "all but forgotten part of history", even though some former inmates went on to become prominent in postwar Germany. About 860 German POWs remain buried in 43 sites across the United States, with their graves often tended by local German Women's Clubs. Even in the communities which formerly hosted POW camps for Germans, local residents often do not know
2178-653: The United States saw its first action in World War I , and only a relatively small number of German prisoners of war reached the U.S. Many prisoners were German sailors caught in port by U.S. forces far away from the European battlefield. The first German POWs were sailors from SMS Cormoran , a German merchant raider anchored in Apra Harbor , Guam, on the day that war was declared. The United States Department of War designated three locations as POW camps during
2244-648: The United States, and thousands of others returned later to visit such as Rüdiger von Wechmar , who lived in New York City for 14 years as the German Permanent Representative to the United Nations . Citing 80 fellow prisoners that he corresponded with after returning home, Funke reported that no reeducation had been necessary in the camps, because they had become "convinced democrats" due to their treatment. The camps in
2310-617: The Western Front , Thomas Mann 's Zauberberg , and Franz Werfel 's The Song of Bernadette . In an article for inter-camp journal Der Ruf , German POW Curt Vinz opined, "Had we only had the opportunity to read these books before, our introduction to life, to war, and the expanse of politics would have been different." Camps had subscriptions to American newspapers, and every camp published its own newspaper with poetry and short stories, puzzles and games, listings of upcoming events, and classified ads. Camp authorities recognized
2376-667: The alleged inferiority of American white bread and coffee , prisoners recognized that they were treated better in the United States than anywhere else. Funke stated that "Nobody could become bored [as a prisoner]." Prisoners were provided with writing materials, art supplies, woodworking utensils, and musical instruments, and were allowed regular correspondence with family in Germany. They held frequent theatrical and musical performances attended by hundreds or thousands, including American guards and Red Cross inspectors; local radio stations even broadcast their music. Prisoners had private radios, and movies were shown as often as four nights
2442-471: The camp were no lost, useless time for us in the course of our lives, but a lifting experience, which has shaped us. Although they expected to go home immediately after the end of the war in 1945, the majority of German prisoners continued working in the United States until 1946—arguably violating the Geneva Convention's requirement of rapid repatriation—then spent up to three more years as laborers in France and
2508-568: The camps ever existed. Reunions of camp inmates, their captors and local townspeople such as those held in Louisiana, Maine, and Georgia have garnered press coverage and local interest for this unusual and infrequently mentioned aspect of the war on the American home front. There is at least one recorded attempt by US authorities to extract information from German POWs through torture . The camps for Germans were cited as precedents for various positions or failures of U.S. detainee policy during
2574-431: The camps without guards on the honor system (Black American soldiers, including Rupert Trimmingham , noted that German prisoners could visit restaurants that they could not because of Jim Crow laws . ), luxuries such as beer and wine were sometimes available, and hobbies or sports were encouraged. Alex Funke, who served as military chaplain to fellow PoWs at Camp Algona, wrote: "We all were positively impressed" by
2640-620: The captors. Prisoners regardless of ideology often taunted their captors, such as saluting with Sieg Heils when forced to attend the lowering of the United States flag . They secretly celebrated Hitler's birthday and other Nazi holidays after the Americans banned them, and many became upset when Jewish American officers supervised them. Prisoners were expected during wartime to attempt to escape, but less than 1% of all prisoners of war in America attempted to escape, however—about half
2706-611: The city. The City of Cleburne Parks and Recreation Department maintains Splash Station, a small water park for people of all ages. The 96-acre (390,000 m ) Cleburne Sports Complex contains seven baseball/softball fields, two football fields, and 20 soccer fields. The Depot at Cleburne Station is a 1,750-seat baseball stadium, home to the Cleburne Railroaders of the American Association of Independent Professional Baseball . Plaza Theatre Company
Cleburne - Misplaced Pages Continue
2772-426: The compounds away from urban, industrial areas for security purposes, in regions with mild climate to minimize construction costs, and at sites where POWs could alleviate anticipated farm labor shortages. Most camps were in the southern or southwestern United States, away from important war factories, but 46 of 48 states hosted camps. A complete list may not exist because of the small, temporary nature of some camps and
2838-502: The country where they were held, familiarity with the English language, and often with several hundred dollars in earnings. The funds benefited the postwar German economy on their return. They had benefited from being held by a nation that largely did not hate German soldiers; a November 1943 poll found that 74% of Americans solely blamed the German government, not Germans, for the war. After repatriation about 5,000 Germans emigrated to
2904-553: The debate over detainees at Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp . A total of 2,222 German POWs escaped from their camps. Most were recaptured within a day. The US government could not account for seven prisoners when they were repatriated. Georg Gärtner , who escaped from a POW camp in Deming, New Mexico , on September 21, 1945, to avoid being repatriated to Silesia , occupied by the Soviet Union, remained at large until 1985. After
2970-710: The district and surrounding areas. Fun Town RV, the nation's largest single-location towable RV dealer employs 412 at its corporate headquarters and sales office. The city is served by the Cleburne Independent School District , with Cleburne High School as the only high school. The district also maintains an alternative school, the Team School, and Phoenix, which is the disciplinary school. The district operates two middle schools for grades 6 though 8: A.D. Wheat Middle School and Lowell Smith Middle School. Elementary-level schools serving
3036-521: The end of the war, in part to comply with the Geneva Convention and in part to avoid the fear of an enemy presence in such large numbers. While most citizens living near camps accepted the prisoners' presence, the government received hundreds of letters each week protesting their good treatment. Many demanded that the POWs be immediately killed, a sentiment the regular casualty lists in American newspapers encouraged. The government had difficulty in persuading
3102-510: The exact numbers needed. While prisoners on average worked more slowly and produced less than civilians, their work was also more reliable and of higher quality. Prisoners who did not meet work quotas were imprisoned with bread and water as rations. Part of their wages helped pay for the POW program. The workers could use the rest at the camp canteen, where fellow prisoners sold snacks, reading and writing material, playing cards, and tobacco products. They were paid in scrip . All hard currency
3168-880: The frequent use of satellite or sub-camps administratively part of larger units; a minority, like Camp Ruston in Louisiana, was built specifically for prisoners. Other than barbed wire and watchtowers, the camps resembled standard United States or German military training sites, with prisoners segregated by service branch and rank. The Geneva Convention of 1929 required the United States to provide living quarters comparable to those of its own military, which meant 40 square feet (3.71 m ) for enlisted men and 120 square feet (11.15 m ) for officers. If prisoners had to sleep in tents while their quarters were constructed, so did their guards. The three admirals and forty generals in custody were sent to Camp Clinton and Camp Shelby in Mississippi , where each had his own bungalow with
3234-535: The government for 100,000 more prisoners to work on farms. Twice each month each prisoner of war camp was required to fill out WD AGO Form 19-21 and mail it to the Office of the Provost Marshal General, Washington 25, D.C., Attention: Prisoner of War Operations Division. The report included the camp's name and address, the nationality of the prisoners, the total number of prisoners broken down by
3300-480: The likely outcome of the war. In turn, the earlier prisoners often viewed the others with contempt, calling them "traitors" and "deserters". Fear of secret punishment by such men caused one prisoner to later state that "there was more political freedom in the German army than in an American prison camp." He and other anti-Nazis were sent to Camp Ruston to protect them, while an Oklahoma camp received Waffen-SS and prisoners who were violent or criticized cooperation with
3366-480: The number of officers, NCOs and privates, and the number of man-days worked by project in that camp during the reporting period. Sometimes additional remarks were included on the back of the form. For example, the additional remarks from Dos Palos POW Branch Camp for the period ending 12 February 1946 stated "1692 [German POWs] waiting for Repatriation CAMP CLOSED 12 February 1946." There were insufficient American guards, especially German speakers. They mostly supervised
SECTION 50
#17327768613253432-528: The ocean, good treatment began with the substantial meals served aboard. Upon arriving in America, the comfort of the Pullman cars that carried them to their prison camps amazed the Germans, as did the country's large size and undamaged prosperity. The Office of the Provost Marshal General (OPMG) supervised the 425,000 German prisoners. They stayed in 700 camps ; government guidelines mandated placing
3498-722: The periodicals' value in serving as creative outlets and as accurate indicators of the prisoners' views. The tone of their articles varied; some promoted Nazi ideology and foresaw German victory. Even as Germany's defeat neared in early 1945, eight of 20 camp newspapers advocated Nazi ideology. Many future German CEOs benefited from education they received as prisoners in the United States. Educated prisoners such as future German cabinet member Walter Hallstein taught classes on their areas of expertise including German, English and other foreign languages, business, and mathematics. The systematically taught courses were so successful that in May 1944
3564-581: The public that treating the prisoners according to the Geneva Convention made it more likely that Germany would treat American prisoners well. Labor unions were the largest opposition to the use of the prisoner workers, citing the War Manpower Commission 's rules that required union participation in worker recruitment whenever possible. Given the wartime labor shortage however, especially in agriculture, many valued their contribution; as late as February 1945, politicians in rural states asked
3630-606: The rate of Italian prisoners and less than the rate in the civilian prison system — and most were unsuccessful. The likelihood of an escapee returning to their forces overseas was very remote; the wish to avoid boredom was the reason most often given by those who attempted to escape, often hoping to reach Argentina . Prisoners who died during escape attempts usually received military funerals with US government-provided German flags. On December 23, 1944, 25 German POWs broke out of Camp Papago Park in Arizona by crawling along
3696-431: The reservoir that provides water to the city and surrounding area, is also named after him. Cleburne is Johnson County's third county seat (the first being Wardville , now under Lake Pat Cleburne). It was formerly known as Camp Henderson, a temporary Civil War outpost from which Johnson County soldiers would depart for war (most of them served under General Cleburne). The city was formally incorporated in 1871. Cleburne
3762-484: The same rations as American soldiers as required by the Geneva Convention including wine for general officers, and special meals for Thanksgiving and Christmas Day ; if experienced cooks were among the prisoners, the food might have been better than what their captors ate. Unable to eat all their food, prisoners at first burned leftover food fearing that their rations would be reduced. Groups of prisoners pooled their daily beer coupons to take turns drinking several at
3828-504: The same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Cleburne . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cleburne&oldid=1148886518 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Disambiguation pages with surname-holder lists Hidden categories: Short description
3894-584: The war for murdering other prisoners in three incidents. Eight others served time in prison in two separate murders. However, dozens of such murders may have occurred. Many devoted Nazis remained loyal to their political beliefs and expected a German victory until the Allies crossed the Rhine in March 1945; their faith amazed prisoners captured during and after the Battle of Normandy , who had more realistic views of
3960-579: The war, the other few escaped prisoners were recaptured or surrendered. After Kurt Rossmeisl—who had lived in Chicago for 14 years—surrendered, Gärtner was the only remaining escapee who had not been captured. He assumed a new identity as Dennis Whiles and lived quietly in California, Colorado, and Hawaii before coming forward in 1985. The FBI had ended its search for Gärtner in 1963 and the federal government could not prosecute or deport him. Whiles became
4026-640: The war: Fort McPherson and Fort Oglethorpe in Georgia and Douglas in Utah. The exact population of German POWs in World War I is difficult to ascertain because they were housed in the same facilities used for German-American internment , but there were known to be 406 German POWs at Fort Douglas and 1,373 at Fort McPherson. The prisoners built furniture and worked on local roads. The few dozen who died while incarcerated as POWs were buried at Ft. Douglas, Utah,
SECTION 60
#17327768613254092-456: Was confiscated with other personal possessions during initial processing, for return after the war as mandated by the convention. The concern was that money could be used during escape attempts. The government received $ 22 million in 1944 from prisoner wages, and that year it estimated that it had saved $ 80 million by using prisoners in military installations. Newspaper coverage of the camps and public knowledge were intentionally limited until
4158-573: Was kept secret because it probably violated the Geneva Convention's ban on exposing prisoners to propaganda, the possibility of German retaliation with American prisoners, and the expectation that prisoners would reject overt reeducation. After V-E Day , SPD began a series of rapid classes on democracy for some of the most cooperative prisoners. The 25,000 graduates of these classes returned directly to Germany, instead of being used for additional labor in Europe. SPD's efforts were unsuccessful. Many in
4224-629: Was near the earliest road in the county. The location featured water from West Buffalo Creek , making it a stop for cattlemen from the Chisholm Trail . In August 1886, the Texas Farmers' Alliance met at Lee's Academy and adopted a 17-point political resolution, commonly known as the Cleburne Demands, which was the first major document of the agrarian revolt occurring at the end of the late 19th century. In 1900, Cleburne
4290-663: Was the site of the founding convention of the Texas State Federation of Labor . Cleburne was primarily an agricultural center and county seat until the Santa Fe Railroad opened a major facility there in 1898. During this time, the population boomed, as it became a sizable city for the area with over 12,000 residents by 1920. The Chicago, Texas and Mexican Central Railway connected Cleburne to Dallas in 1882. Two other railroads had terminals in Cleburne. The Dallas, Cleburne, and Southwestern Railway completed
4356-547: Was unpopular as it was essentially a literary journal with little current news. Surveys of camp prisoners found no change in the views of the vast majority of prisoners from the program. This was consistent with the unchanging level of confidence found in German soldiers immediately after their capture in Europe despite steady German defeats. Their nation's complete defeat in the war and subsequent division into two countries were likely much more influential than SPD reeducation in Germans' postwar rejection of Nazism. The 3 years in
#324675