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50-420: A cyclograph (also known as an arcograph ) is an instrument for drawing arcs of large diameter circles whose centres are inconveniently or inaccessibly located, one version of which was invented by Scottish architect and mathematician Peter Nicholson . In his autobiography, published in 1904, polymath Herbert Spencer eloquently describes his own near re-invention of Nicholson's cyclograph while working as

100-400: A ) = γ ( b ) {\displaystyle \gamma (a)=\gamma (b)} . A closed curve is thus the image of a continuous mapping of a circle . A non-closed curve may also be called an open curve . If the domain of a topological curve is a closed and bounded interval I = [ a , b ] {\displaystyle I=[a,b]} , the curve is called

150-613: A , b ] {\displaystyle [a,b]} . A rectifiable curve is a curve with finite length. A curve γ : [ a , b ] → X {\displaystyle \gamma :[a,b]\to X} is called natural (or unit-speed or parametrized by arc length) if for any t 1 , t 2 ∈ [ a , b ] {\displaystyle t_{1},t_{2}\in [a,b]} such that t 1 ≤ t 2 {\displaystyle t_{1}\leq t_{2}} , we have If γ : [

200-425: A , b ] → X {\displaystyle \gamma :[a,b]\to X} is a Lipschitz-continuous function, then it is automatically rectifiable. Moreover, in this case, one can define the speed (or metric derivative ) of γ {\displaystyle \gamma } at t ∈ [ a , b ] {\displaystyle t\in [a,b]} as and then show that While

250-426: A differentiable curve is a curve that is defined as being locally the image of an injective differentiable function γ : I → X {\displaystyle \gamma \colon I\rightarrow X} from an interval I of the real numbers into a differentiable manifold X , often R n . {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}.} More precisely,

300-444: A path , also known as topological arc (or just arc ). A curve is simple if it is the image of an interval or a circle by an injective continuous function. In other words, if a curve is defined by a continuous function γ {\displaystyle \gamma } with an interval as a domain, the curve is simple if and only if any two different points of the interval have different images, except, possibly, if

350-470: A civil engineer for the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway . During the latter part of 1839 the preparations of plans for crossings and sidings at various stations was put into my hands. A device for saving trouble was one of the consequences. Curves of very large radius had to be drawn; and, finding a beam-compass of adequate length difficult to manage, I bethought me of an instrumental application of

400-411: A finite field are widely used in modern cryptography . Interest in curves began long before they were the subject of mathematical study. This can be seen in numerous examples of their decorative use in art and on everyday objects dating back to prehistoric times. Curves, or at least their graphical representations, are simple to create, for example with a stick on the sand on a beach. Historically,

450-432: A plane algebraic curve , which however may introduce new singularities such as cusps or double points . A plane curve may also be completed to a curve in the projective plane : if a curve is defined by a polynomial f of total degree d , then w f ( u / w , v / w ) simplifies to a homogeneous polynomial g ( u , v , w ) of degree d . The values of u , v , w such that g ( u , v , w ) = 0 are

500-463: A closed interval [ a , b ] {\displaystyle [a,b]} is which can be thought of intuitively as using the Pythagorean theorem at the infinitesimal scale continuously over the full length of the curve. More generally, if X {\displaystyle X} is a metric space with metric d {\displaystyle d} , then we can define

550-472: A curve C with coordinates in a field G are said to be rational over G and can be denoted C ( G ) . When G is the field of the rational numbers , one simply talks of rational points . For example, Fermat's Last Theorem may be restated as: For n > 2 , every rational point of the Fermat curve of degree n has a zero coordinate . Algebraic curves can also be space curves, or curves in

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600-773: A curve has been formalized in modern mathematics as: A curve is the image of an interval to a topological space by a continuous function . In some contexts, the function that defines the curve is called a parametrization , and the curve is a parametric curve . In this article, these curves are sometimes called topological curves to distinguish them from more constrained curves such as differentiable curves . This definition encompasses most curves that are studied in mathematics; notable exceptions are level curves (which are unions of curves and isolated points), and algebraic curves (see below). Level curves and algebraic curves are sometimes called implicit curves , since they are generally defined by implicit equations . Nevertheless,

650-541: A differentiable curve is a subset C of X where every point of C has a neighborhood U such that C ∩ U {\displaystyle C\cap U} is diffeomorphic to an interval of the real numbers. In other words, a differentiable curve is a differentiable manifold of dimension one. In Euclidean geometry , an arc (symbol: ⌒ ) is a connected subset of a differentiable curve. Arcs of lines are called segments , rays , or lines , depending on how they are bounded. A common curved example

700-439: A line is perhaps clarified by the statement "The extremities of a line are points," (Def. 3). Later commentators further classified lines according to various schemes. For example: The Greek geometers had studied many other kinds of curves. One reason was their interest in solving geometrical problems that could not be solved using standard compass and straightedge construction. These curves include: A fundamental advance in

750-421: A pen or pencil. Two needles thrust into the paper at the desired points, being pressed against by the arms of the instrument, as it was moved from side to side, its pen or pencil described the arc of a circle. When about to publish a description of this appliance, I discovered that it had been already devised, and was known as Nicholson’s Cyclograph. Arc (geometry) Intuitively, a curve may be thought of as

800-450: A space of higher dimension, say n . They are defined as algebraic varieties of dimension one. They may be obtained as the common solutions of at least n –1 polynomial equations in n variables. If n –1 polynomials are sufficient to define a curve in a space of dimension n , the curve is said to be a complete intersection . By eliminating variables (by any tool of elimination theory ), an algebraic curve may be projected onto

850-488: A stop or backtracks on itself.) Two C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} differentiable curves are said to be equivalent if there is a bijective C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} map such that the inverse map is also C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} , and for all t {\displaystyle t} . The map γ 2 {\displaystyle \gamma _{2}}

900-559: Is a C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} manifold (i.e., a manifold whose charts are k {\displaystyle k} times continuously differentiable ), then a C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} curve in X {\displaystyle X} is such a curve which is only assumed to be C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} (i.e. k {\displaystyle k} times continuously differentiable). If X {\displaystyle X}

950-418: Is a curve for which X {\displaystyle X} is at least three-dimensional; a skew curve is a space curve which lies in no plane. These definitions of plane, space and skew curves apply also to real algebraic curves , although the above definition of a curve does not apply (a real algebraic curve may be disconnected ). A plane simple closed curve is also called a Jordan curve . It

1000-415: Is a curve in spacetime . If X {\displaystyle X} is a differentiable manifold , then we can define the notion of differentiable curve in X {\displaystyle X} . This general idea is enough to cover many of the applications of curves in mathematics. From a local point of view one can take X {\displaystyle X} to be Euclidean space. On

1050-480: Is also defined as a non-self-intersecting continuous loop in the plane. The Jordan curve theorem states that the set complement in a plane of a Jordan curve consists of two connected components (that is the curve divides the plane in two non-intersecting regions that are both connected). The bounded region inside a Jordan curve is known as Jordan domain . The definition of a curve includes figures that can hardly be called curves in common usage. For example,

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1100-420: Is an analytic manifold (i.e. infinitely differentiable and charts are expressible as power series ), and γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is an analytic map, then γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is said to be an analytic curve . A differentiable curve is said to be regular if its derivative never vanishes. (In words, a regular curve never slows to

1150-487: Is an arc of a circle , called a circular arc . In a sphere (or a spheroid ), an arc of a great circle (or a great ellipse ) is called a great arc . If X = R n {\displaystyle X=\mathbb {R} ^{n}} is the n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional Euclidean space, and if γ : [ a , b ] → R n {\displaystyle \gamma :[a,b]\to \mathbb {R} ^{n}}

1200-506: Is an injective and continuously differentiable function, then the length of γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is defined as the quantity The length of a curve is independent of the parametrization γ {\displaystyle \gamma } . In particular, the length s {\displaystyle s} of the graph of a continuously differentiable function y = f ( x ) {\displaystyle y=f(x)} defined on

1250-483: Is called a reparametrization of γ 1 {\displaystyle \gamma _{1}} ; and this makes an equivalence relation on the set of all C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} differentiable curves in X {\displaystyle X} . A C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} arc is an equivalence class of C k {\displaystyle C^{k}} curves under

1300-439: Is mostly concerned with the study of ordered fields and ordered rings (in particular real closed fields ) and their applications to the study of positive polynomials and sums-of-squares of polynomials . (See Hilbert's 17th problem and Krivine's Positivestellensatz .) The relation of real algebra to real algebraic geometry is similar to the relation of commutative algebra to complex algebraic geometry . Related fields are

1350-400: Is the zero set of a polynomial in two indeterminates . More generally, an algebraic curve is the zero set of a finite set of polynomials, which satisfies the further condition of being an algebraic variety of dimension one. If the coefficients of the polynomials belong to a field k , the curve is said to be defined over k . In the common case of a real algebraic curve , where k

1400-437: Is the field of real numbers , an algebraic curve is a finite union of topological curves. When complex zeros are considered, one has a complex algebraic curve , which, from the topological point of view, is not a curve, but a surface , and is often called a Riemann surface . Although not being curves in the common sense, algebraic curves defined over other fields have been widely studied. In particular, algebraic curves over

1450-554: Is the sub-branch of algebraic geometry studying real algebraic sets , i.e. real-number solutions to algebraic equations with real-number coefficients, and mappings between them (in particular real polynomial mappings ). Semialgebraic geometry is the study of semialgebraic sets , i.e. real-number solutions to algebraic inequalities with-real number coefficients, and mappings between them. The most natural mappings between semialgebraic sets are semialgebraic mappings , i.e., mappings whose graphs are semialgebraic sets. Nowadays

1500-513: The Pierce–Birkhoff conjecture ) are also semialgebraic mappings. Computational real algebraic geometry is concerned with the algorithmic aspects of real algebraic (and semialgebraic) geometry. The main algorithm is cylindrical algebraic decomposition . It is used to cut semialgebraic sets into nice pieces and to compute their projections. Real algebra is the part of algebra which is relevant to real algebraic (and semialgebraic) geometry. It

1550-402: The calculus of variations . Solutions to variational problems, such as the brachistochrone and tautochrone questions, introduced properties of curves in new ways (in this case, the cycloid ). The catenary gets its name as the solution to the problem of a hanging chain, the sort of question that became routinely accessible by means of differential calculus . In the eighteenth century came

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1600-476: The real numbers into a topological space X . Properly speaking, the curve is the image of γ . {\displaystyle \gamma .} However, in some contexts, γ {\displaystyle \gamma } itself is called a curve, especially when the image does not look like what is generally called a curve and does not characterize sufficiently γ . {\displaystyle \gamma .} For example,

1650-455: The real part of the curve. It is therefore only the real part of an algebraic curve that can be a topological curve (this is not always the case, as the real part of an algebraic curve may be disconnected and contain isolated points). The whole curve, that is the set of its complex point is, from the topological point of view a surface. In particular, the nonsingular complex projective algebraic curves are called Riemann surfaces . The points of

1700-401: The beginnings of the theory of plane algebraic curves, in general. Newton had studied the cubic curves , in the general description of the real points into 'ovals'. The statement of Bézout's theorem showed a number of aspects which were not directly accessible to the geometry of the time, to do with singular points and complex solutions. Since the nineteenth century, curve theory is viewed as

1750-401: The class of topological curves is very broad, and contains some curves that do not look as one may expect for a curve, or even cannot be drawn. This is the case of space-filling curves and fractal curves . For ensuring more regularity, the function that defines a curve is often supposed to be differentiable , and the curve is then said to be a differentiable curve . A plane algebraic curve

1800-401: The first examples of curves that are met are mostly plane curves (that is, in everyday words, curved lines in two-dimensional space ), there are obvious examples such as the helix which exist naturally in three dimensions. The needs of geometry, and also for example classical mechanics are to have a notion of curve in space of any number of dimensions. In general relativity , a world line

1850-427: The geometrical truth that angles in the same segment of a circle are equal to one another. An obvious implication is that if an angle be made rigid, and its arms be obliged to move through the two points terminating the segment, the apex of the angle must describe a circle. In pursuance of this idea I had made an instrument hinged like a foot-rule, but capable of having its hinge screwed tight in any position, and carrying

1900-488: The homogeneous coordinates of the points of the completion of the curve in the projective plane and the points of the initial curve are those such that w is not zero. An example is the Fermat curve u + v = w , which has an affine form x + y = 1 . A similar process of homogenization may be defined for curves in higher dimensional spaces. Real algebraic curve In mathematics , real algebraic geometry

1950-423: The image of a curve can cover a square in the plane ( space-filling curve ), and a simple curve may have a positive area. Fractal curves can have properties that are strange for the common sense. For example, a fractal curve can have a Hausdorff dimension bigger than one (see Koch snowflake ) and even a positive area. An example is the dragon curve , which has many other unusual properties. Roughly speaking

2000-490: The image of the Peano curve or, more generally, a space-filling curve completely fills a square, and therefore does not give any information on how γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is defined. A curve γ {\displaystyle \gamma } is closed or is a loop if I = [ a , b ] {\displaystyle I=[a,b]} and γ (

2050-466: The length of a curve γ : [ a , b ] → X {\displaystyle \gamma :[a,b]\to X} by where the supremum is taken over all n ∈ N {\displaystyle n\in \mathbb {N} } and all partitions t 0 < t 1 < … < t n {\displaystyle t_{0}<t_{1}<\ldots <t_{n}} of [

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2100-473: The other hand, it is useful to be more general, in that (for example) it is possible to define the tangent vectors to X {\displaystyle X} by means of this notion of curve. If X {\displaystyle X} is a smooth manifold , a smooth curve in X {\displaystyle X} is a smooth map This is a basic notion. There are less and more restricted ideas, too. If X {\displaystyle X}

2150-465: The points are the endpoints of the interval. Intuitively, a simple curve is a curve that "does not cross itself and has no missing points" (a continuous non-self-intersecting curve). A plane curve is a curve for which X {\displaystyle X} is the Euclidean plane —these are the examples first encountered—or in some cases the projective plane . A space curve

2200-400: The points with coordinates in an algebraically closed field K . If C is a curve defined by a polynomial f with coefficients in F , the curve is said to be defined over F . In the case of a curve defined over the real numbers , one normally considers points with complex coordinates. In this case, a point with real coordinates is a real point , and the set of all real points is

2250-425: The relation of reparametrization. Algebraic curves are the curves considered in algebraic geometry . A plane algebraic curve is the set of the points of coordinates x , y such that f ( x , y ) = 0 , where f is a polynomial in two variables defined over some field F . One says that the curve is defined over F . Algebraic geometry normally considers not only points with coordinates in F but all

2300-446: The special case of dimension one of the theory of manifolds and algebraic varieties . Nevertheless, many questions remain specific to curves, such as space-filling curves , Jordan curve theorem and Hilbert's sixteenth problem . A topological curve can be specified by a continuous function γ : I → X {\displaystyle \gamma \colon I\rightarrow X} from an interval I of

2350-466: The term line was used in place of the more modern term curve . Hence the terms straight line and right line were used to distinguish what are today called lines from curved lines. For example, in Book I of Euclid's Elements , a line is defined as a "breadthless length" (Def. 2), while a straight line is defined as "a line that lies evenly with the points on itself" (Def. 4). Euclid's idea of

2400-678: The theory of curves was the introduction of analytic geometry by René Descartes in the seventeenth century. This enabled a curve to be described using an equation rather than an elaborate geometrical construction. This not only allowed new curves to be defined and studied, but it enabled a formal distinction to be made between algebraic curves that can be defined using polynomial equations , and transcendental curves that cannot. Previously, curves had been described as "geometrical" or "mechanical" according to how they were, or supposedly could be, generated. Conic sections were applied in astronomy by Kepler . Newton also worked on an early example in

2450-476: The trace left by a moving point . This is the definition that appeared more than 2000 years ago in Euclid's Elements : "The [curved] line is […] the first species of quantity, which has only one dimension, namely length, without any width nor depth, and is nothing else than the flow or run of the point which […] will leave from its imaginary moving some vestige in length, exempt of any width." This definition of

2500-740: The words 'semialgebraic geometry' and 'real algebraic geometry' are used as synonyms, because real algebraic sets cannot be studied seriously without the use of semialgebraic sets. For example, a projection of a real algebraic set along a coordinate axis need not be a real algebraic set, but it is always a semialgebraic set: this is the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem . Related fields are o-minimal theory and real analytic geometry . Examples: Real plane curves are examples of real algebraic sets and polyhedra are examples of semialgebraic sets. Real algebraic functions and Nash functions are examples of semialgebraic mappings. Piecewise polynomial mappings (see

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