Fred Anderson (born 1949) is an American historian of early North American history.
71-596: The Sugar Act 1764 or Sugar Act 1763 , also known as the American Revenue Act 1764 or the American Duties Act , was a revenue-raising act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on 5 April 1764. The preamble to the act stated: "it is expedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue of this Kingdom ... and ... it is just and necessary that
142-494: A common and successful practice, Parliament realized how difficult it was to enforce the taxing of tea. The Act stated that no more taxes would be placed on tea, and it made the cost of the East India Company's tea less than tea that was smuggled via Holland . It was an incentive for the colonists to purchase the East India Company tea. This was the last of the five acts passed. It was not passed until 8 March 1768,
213-551: A favourable outcome using a local judge and jury. The Vice-Admiralty Court Act added three new admiralty courts in Boston, Philadelphia and Charleston to aid in more effective prosecutions. These courts were run by judges appointed by the Crown and whose salaries were paid, in the first instance, from fines levied. when they found someone guilty. [...] all forfeitures and penalties inflected by any act or acts of parliament relating to
284-548: A legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves? In August 1764, fifty Boston merchants agreed to stop purchasing British luxury imports, and in both Boston and New York City there were movements to increase colonial manufacturing. There were sporadic outbreaks of violence, most notably in Rhode Island . Overall, however, there
355-524: A portion of the expenses for colonial defense. Estimating the expenses of maintaining an army in the Continental colonies and the West Indies to be approximately £200,000 annually, Grenville devised a revenue-raising program that would raise an estimated £79,000 per year. The Molasses Act was set to expire in 1763. The Commissioners of Customs anticipated greater demand for both molasses and rum as
426-407: A result of the end of the war and the acquisition of Canada. They believed that the increased demand would make a sharply reduced rate both affordable and collectible. When passed by Parliament, the new Sugar Act of 1764 halved the previous tax on molasses. In addition to promising stricter enforcement, the language of the bill made it clear that the purpose of the legislation was not to simply regulate
497-423: A revenue should be raised ... for defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same." The earlier Molasses Act 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses , had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. By reducing the rate by half and increasing measures to enforce the tax, Parliament hoped that the tax would actually be collected. These incidents increased
568-547: A way as to maximize revenues." The Sugar Act was passed by Parliament on 5 April 1764, and it arrived in the colonies at a time of economic depression. A good part of the reason was that a significant portion of the colonial economy during the Seven Years' War was involved with supplying food and supplies to the British Army. Colonials, however, especially those affected directly as merchants and shippers, assumed that
639-584: The American Revolution . Following the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the British government was deep in debt. To pay a small fraction of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the Parliament of Great Britain decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America . Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts , Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire. But with
710-579: The Chancellor of the Exchequer , devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were only allowed to buy from Great Britain. The colonists' objection to "internal" taxes did not mean that they would accept "external" taxes; the colonial position
781-593: The Chatham ministry 's new approach to generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. The British government had gotten the impression that because the colonists had objected to the Stamp Act on the grounds that it was a direct (or "internal") tax, colonists would therefore accept indirect (or "external") taxes, such as taxes on imports. With this in mind, Charles Townshend,
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#1732772859588852-521: The French and Indian War , the British government substantially increased the national debt to pay for the war. In February 1763, as the war ended, the ministry headed by John Stuart , the Earl of Bute, decided to maintain a standing army of ten thousand British regular troops in the colonies. Shortly thereafter, George Grenville replaced Bute. Grenville supported his predecessor's policy, even more so after
923-516: The Massachusetts Circular Letter , other colonies also sent petitions to the king. Virginia and Pennsylvania also sent petitions to Parliament, but the other colonies did not, believing that it might have been interpreted as an admission of Parliament's sovereignty over them. Parliament refused to consider the petitions of Virginia and Pennsylvania. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough , who had recently been appointed to
994-980: The National Endowment for the Humanities , the Charles Warren Center of Harvard University, the Guggenheim Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation . He is the author or editor of five books including Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, February 11, 2000; London: Faber and Faber, 2000), which won the Mark Lynton History Prize and
1065-573: The Stamp Act 1765 was repealed. Townshend Acts The Townshend Acts ( / ˈ t aʊ n z ən d / ) or Townshend Duties were a series of British acts of Parliament passed during 1767 and 1768 introducing a series of taxes and regulations to enable administration of the British colonies in America. They are named after the Chancellor of the Exchequer who proposed the program. Historians vary slightly as to which acts they include under
1136-596: The Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved. The Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament, but the British government retorted that they had " virtual representation ", a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following
1207-788: The burning of the Gaspee in 1772. The Townshend Acts' taxation of imported tea was enforced once again by the Tea Act 1773 , and this led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773 in which Bostonians destroyed a large shipment of taxed tea. Parliament responded with severe punishments in the Intolerable Acts 1774. The Thirteen Colonies drilled their militia units, and war finally erupted in Lexington and Concord in April 1775, launching
1278-499: The 2001 Francis Parkman Prize as best book in American history. Together with Andrew Cayton ( Miami University ), he has recently published The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500-2000 (New York: Viking; London: Atlantic Books, 2005). His newest book, The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (Viking) is a companion to the four-hour PBS series " The War that Made America ," which
1349-500: The British troops stationed there to defend the colony. New York resisted the Quartering Act saying they were being taxed, yet had no direct representation in Parliament. Furthermore, New York didn't think British soldiers were needed any more, since the French and Indian War had come to an end. That from and after the first day of October , one thousand seven hundred and sixty seven, until provision shall have been made by
1420-633: The Cause of American Freedom is to be vindicated, I look towards the Province of Massachusetts Bay". The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by first sending a petition to King George asking for the repeal of the Revenue Act, and then sending a letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement. Upon receipt of
1491-601: The Circular Letter. By a vote of 92 to 17, the House refused to comply, and Bernard promptly dissolved the legislature. Fred Anderson (historian) Anderson received his B.A. from Colorado State University in 1971 and his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1981. He has taught at Harvard and at the University of Colorado , Boulder , where he is currently Professor Emeritus of History. He has held fellowships from
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#17327728595881562-475: The Commissioners were indeed corrupt. They engaged in extensive "customs racketeering" and they were involved in many of the episodes of heightened the tension between England and the colonies: it was on their request that troops were sent to Boston; The Boston Massacre took place before their headquarters; the "Gaspee" was operating under their orders. Historian Doug Krehbiel argues: Disputes brought to
1633-471: The Quartering Act when appropriating this money; they also passed a resolution stating that Parliament could not constitutionally suspend an elected legislature. Townshend knew that his program would be controversial in the colonies, but he argued that, "The superiority of the mother country can at no time be better exerted than now." The Townshend Acts did not create an instant uproar like the Stamp Act had done two years earlier, but before long, opposition to
1704-475: The Sugar Act, became a major point of contention after Parliament's passage of the Stamp Act 1765 . The Stamp Act proved to be wildly unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year, along with the failure to raise substantial revenue. Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was an issue more fundamental than taxation and representation: the question of the extent of Parliament's authority in
1775-602: The Townshend Acts, this act was initiated by the Cabinet when Townshend was not present and was not passed until after his death. Before this act, there was just one vice admiralty court in North America, located in Halifax , Nova Scotia . Established in 1764, this court proved to be too remote to serve all of the colonies, and so the 1768 Vice Admiralty Court Act created four district courts, which were located at Halifax , Boston, Philadelphia , and Charleston . One purpose of
1846-695: The Townshend duties. In March 1770, most of the taxes from the Townshend Acts were repealed by Parliament under Frederick, Lord North . However, the import duty on tea was retained in order to demonstrate to the colonists that Parliament held the sovereign authority to tax its colonies, in accordance with the Declaratory Act 1766 . The British government continued to tax the American colonies without providing representation in Parliament . American resentment, corrupt British officials, and abusive enforcement spurred colonial attacks on British ships, including
1917-479: The West Indies had been the primary colonial source for hard currency, or specie , and as the reserves of specie were depleted the soundness of colonial currency was threatened. Two prime movers behind the protests against the Sugar Act were Samuel Adams and James Otis , both of Massachusetts . In May 1764 Samuel Adams drafted a report on the Sugar Act for the Massachusetts assembly, in which he denounced
1988-550: The act as an infringement of the rights of the colonists as British subjects: For if our Trade may be taxed why not our Lands? Why not the Produce of our Lands & every thing we possess or make use of? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves – It strikes our British Privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain: If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having
2059-429: The assemblies." Some members of Parliament objected because Townshend's plan was expected to generate only £40,000 in yearly revenue, but he explained that once the precedent for taxing the colonists had been firmly established, the program could gradually be expanded until the colonies paid for themselves. According to historian Peter Thomas, Townshend's "aims were political rather than financial". To better collect
2130-530: The board were almost exclusively resolved in favor of the British government. Vice admiralty courts claimed to prosecute vigorously smugglers but were widely corrupt—customs officials falsely accused ship owners of possessing undeclared items, thereby seizing the cargoes of entire vessels, and justices of the juryless courts were entitled to a percentage of the goods from colonial ships that they ruled unlawful. Writs of assistance and blanket search warrants to search for smuggled goods were liberally abused. John Hancock,
2201-508: The colonies from trading with the non-British islands, Parliament passed a prohibitively high tax on the colonies on molasses imported from those islands. If actually collected, the tax would have effectively closed that source to New England and destroyed much of the rum industry. Instead, smuggling, bribery or intimidation of customs officials effectively nullified the law. During the Seven Years' War , known in Colonial America as
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2272-453: The colonies towards the British government. According to historian Oliver Dickerson, "The actual separation of the continental colonies from the rest of the Empire dates from the creation of this independent administrative board." The American Board of Customs Commissioners was notoriously corrupt, according to historians. Political scientist Peter Andreas argues: merchants resented not only
2343-464: The colonies. Parliament provided its answer to this question when it repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 by simultaneously passing the Declaratory Act , which proclaimed that Parliament could legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever". This act was the (joint) first act, passed on 29 June 1767, the same day as the Commissioners of Customs Act (see below). It placed taxes on glass, lead, "painters' colors" (paint), paper, and tea. It also gave
2414-475: The colonies. This followed from the principle of mercantilism in England, which meant the colonies were forced to trade only with England. The British East India Company was one of England's largest companies but was on the verge of collapse due to much cheaper smuggled Dutch tea. Part of the purpose of the entire series of Townshend Acts was to save the company from imploding. Since tea smuggling had become
2485-402: The colonies. This tax cut in England would be partially offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies. The Revenue Act also reaffirmed the legality of writs of assistance , or general search warrants , which gave customs officials broad powers to search houses and businesses for smuggled goods. The original stated purpose of the Townshend duties was to raise a revenue to help pay
2556-613: The colonists' concerns about the intent of the British Parliament and helped the growing movement that became the American Revolution . The Molasses Act 1733 was passed by Parliament largely at the insistence of large plantation owners in the British West Indies. Molasses from French, Dutch, and Spanish West Indian possessions was inexpensive. Producers of sugar from the British West Indies priced sugar much higher than their competitors, and they had no need for
2627-576: The cost of maintaining an army in North America. Townshend changed the purpose of the tax plan, however, and instead decided to use the revenue to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges. Previously, the colonial assemblies had paid these salaries, but Parliament hoped to take the " power of the purse " away from the colonies. According to historian John C. Miller, "Townshend ingeniously sought to take money from Americans by means of parliamentary taxation and to employ it against their liberties by making colonial governors and judges independent of
2698-570: The heading "Townshend Acts", but five are often listed: The purposes of the acts were to The Townshend Acts met resistance in the colonies. People debated them in the streets, and in the colonial newspapers . Opponents of the Acts gradually became violent, leading to the Boston Massacre of 1770. The Acts placed an indirect tax on glass, lead, paints, paper, and tea, all of which had to be imported from Britain. This form of revenue generation
2769-423: The highly visible new tax program was the major culprit. As protests against the Sugar Act developed, it was the economic impact rather than the constitutional issue of taxation without representation that was the main focus for the colonists. New England ports especially suffered economic losses from the Sugar Act as the stricter enforcement made smuggling molasses more dangerous and risky. Also they argued that
2840-451: The large quantities of lumber, fish, and other items offered by the colonies in exchange. Sometimes colonists would pay Molasses Act taxes because they were rather low depending on where they resided and how much money they had. In the first part of the 18th century, the British West Indies were Great Britain's most important trading partner, so Parliament was attentive to their requests. However, rather than acceding to their demands to prohibit
2911-650: The new taxes, the Commissioners of Customs Act 1767 (7 Geo 3 c 41) established the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was modeled on the British Board of Customs . The board was created because of the difficulties the British Board faced in enforcing trade regulations in the distant colonies. Five commissioners were appointed to the board, which was headquartered in Boston. The American Customs Board would generate considerable hostility in
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2982-560: The newly created office of Colonial Secretary , was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also sent a letter to Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard , instructing him to have the Massachusetts House rescind
3053-594: The occupation of Boston by British troops. This led to the Boston Massacre . This was the (joint) third of the five acts, passed on 2 July 1767, the same day as the Indemnity Act. It forbade the New York Assembly and the governor of New York from passing any new bills until they complied with the Quartering Act 1765 . That act required New York to provide housing, food and supplies for
3124-467: The option of trial by jury, which was considered to be a fundamental right of British subjects. In addition, the accused person had to travel to the court of jurisdiction at his own expense; if he did not appear, he was automatically considered guilty. The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes simply known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act 1767 (7 Geo 3 c 46). This act represented
3195-521: The outbreak of Pontiac's War in May 1763. Grenville faced the problem of not only paying for these troops but servicing the national debt. The debt grew from £75,000,000 before the war to £122,600,000 in January 1763, and almost £130,000,000 by the beginning of 1764. George Grenville did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of the debt, but he did expect the Americans to pay
3266-406: The profit margin on rum was too small to support any tax on molasses. Forced to increase their prices, many colonists feared being priced out of the market. The British West Indies , on the other hand, now had unrestricted exports. With supply of molasses well exceeding demand, the islands prospered with their reduced expenses while New England ports saw revenue from their rum exports decrease. Also
3337-549: The programme had become widespread. Townshend did not live to see this reaction, having died suddenly on 4 September 1767. The most influential colonial response to the Townshend Acts was a series of twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled " Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania ", which began appearing in December 1767. Eloquently articulating ideas already widely accepted in the colonies, Dickinson argued that there
3408-470: The said act [...] to any particular court to grant such writs of assistance for the officers of the customs in the said plantations, it is doubted whether such officers can legally enter houses and other places on land, to search for and seize goods, in the manner directed by the said recited acts. To obviate which doubts for the future, and in order to carry the intention of the said recited acts into effectual execution, be it enacted [...], That from and after
3479-430: The said assembly of New York for furnishing his Majesty's troops within the said province with all such necessaries as are required by the said acts of parliament ... it shall not be lawful for the governor ... to pass, or give his or their assent to, or concurrence in, the making or passing of any act of assembly; or his or their assent to any order, resolution, or vote, in concurrence with the house of representatives for
3550-427: The said plantations, as his Majesty [...] shall judge to be most for the advantage or trade, and security of the revenue of the said British colonies. 7 Geo. 3. c. 41 s. 1 Once the new Customs Board was in operation, enforcement increased, leading to a confrontation with smuggling colonists. Incidents between customs officials, military personnel and colonists broke out across the colonies, eventually leading to
3621-427: The said twentieth day of November, one thousand seven hundred and sixty seven, such writs of assistance, [...] shall and may be granted by the said superior or supreme court of justice having jurisdiction within such colony or plantation respectively. 7 Geo. 3. c. 46, s. 10 There was an angry response from colonists, who deemed the taxes a threat to their rights as British subjects. The use of writs of assistance
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#17327728595883692-406: The same in his Majesty's store-house next to the place where such seizure shall be made; and whereas by an act [...] it is, amongst other things, enacted, that the officers for collecting and managing his Majesty's revenue, and inspecting the plantation trade, in America, shall have the same powers and authorities [as] is provided for the officers of England: but, no authority being expressly given by
3763-655: The ships. Customs officials were empowered to have all violations tried in vice admiralty courts rather than by jury trials in local colonial courts, where the juries generally looked favourably on smuggling as a profession. American historian Fred Anderson wrote that the purpose of the Act was "to resolve the problems of finance and control that plagued the postwar empire". To do this "three kinds of measures" were implemented – "those intended to make customs enforcement more effective, those that placed new duties on items widely consumed in America, and those that adjusted old rates in such
3834-419: The squeeze on smuggling but also the exploits by unscrupulous customs agents that came with it. Such "customs racketeering" was, in the view of colonial merchants, essentially legalized piracy. Historian Edmund Morgan says: In the establishment of this American Board of Customs Commissioners, Americans saw the extension of England's corrupt system of officeholding to America. As Professor Dickerson has shown,
3905-702: The supreme court of each colony the power to issue " writs of assistance ", general warrants that could be issued to customs officers and used to search private property for smuggled goods. And whereas by an act of parliament, [...] it is lawful for any officer of his Majesty's customs, authorized by writ of assistance under the seal of his Majesty's court of exchequer, [...] and in the day-time to enter and go into any house, shop, cellar, warehouse, or room or other place, and in case of resistance, to break open doors, chests, trunks, and other package there, to seize, and from thence to bring, any kind of goods or merchandize whatsoever prohibited or uncustomed, and to put and secure
3976-415: The time being within the said colony, or for the said house of representatives to pass or make any bill, order, resolution, or vote, (orders, resolutions, or votes, for adjourning such house only, excepted) of any kind, for any other purpose whatsoever 7 Geo. 3. c. 59 Before the act was implemented, New York reluctantly agreed to provide some of the soldiers' needs, so it was never applied. This Act
4047-466: The trade (as the Molasses Act had attempted to do by effectively closing the legal trade to non-British suppliers) but to raise revenue. The new act listed specific goods, the most important being lumber, which could only be exported to Britain. Ship captains were required to maintain detailed manifests of their cargo and the papers were subject to verification before anything could be unloaded from
4118-511: The trade or revenues of the British colonies or plantations in America , may be prosecuted, sued for, and recovered, in any court of vice-admiralty appointed, or to be appointed, and which shall have jurisdiction within the colony, plantation, or place, where the cause of such prosecution or suit shall have arisen. 8 Geo. 3. c. 22 s. 1 The decisions were made solely by the judge, without
4189-612: The vice admiralty courts, which did not have juries , was to help customs officials prosecute smugglers since colonial juries were reluctant to convict persons for violating unpopular trade regulations. Townshend also faced the problem of what to do about the New York General Assembly , which had refused to comply with the Quartering Act 1765 because its members saw the act's financial provisions as levying an unconstitutional tax. The New York Restraining Act (7 Geo 3 c 59), which according to historian Robert Chaffin
4260-543: The wealthy New England merchant, had his ship "Liberty" seized in 1768 on a false charge, incensing the colonists. Charges against Hancock were later dropped and his ship returned because of the fear that he would appeal to more scrupulous customs officials in Britain. Another measure to enforce the trade laws was the Vice Admiralty Court Act 1768 (8 Geo 3 c 22). Although often included in discussions of
4331-707: The year after the other four. Lord Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, after whom the Townshend Acts were named, had died suddenly in September 1767, and so did not introduce this Act. The Act was passed to aid the prosecution of smugglers. It gave admiralty courts , rather than colonial courts, jurisdiction over all matters concerning customs violations and smuggling. Before the Act, customs violators could be tried in an admiralty court in Halifax, Nova Scotia, if royal prosecutors believed they would not get
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#17327728595884402-458: Was "officially a part of the Townshend Acts", suspended the power of the Assembly until it complied with the Quartering Act. The Restraining Act never went into effect because, by the time it was passed, the New York Assembly had already appropriated money to cover the costs of the Quartering Act. The Assembly avoided conceding the right of Parliament to tax the colonies by making no reference to
4473-556: Was Townshend's response to the failure of the Stamp Act 1765 , which had provided the first form of direct taxation placed upon the colonies. However, the import duties proved to be similarly controversial. Colonial indignation over the acts was expressed in John Dickinson 's Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania and in the Massachusetts Circular Letter . There was widespread protest, and American port cities refused to import British goods, so Parliament began to partially repeal
4544-407: Was broadcast January 18 and 25, 2006. The series and book were released to coincide with the 250th anniversary of the French and Indian War , organized by French and Indian War 250 Inc., as part of a collaborative effort with a variety of museums, historic sites and educational workshops spanning several states. In late 2006, it was announced that Anderson and Cayton have been assigned the volume on
4615-517: Was handled by the Customs Board back in England. Due to the distance, enforcement was poor, taxes were avoided and smuggling was rampant. Be it therefore enacted [...] that the customs and other duties imposed [...] upon any goods or merchandise brought or imported into, or exported or carried from, any British colony or plantation in America , may, from time to time, be put under the management and direction of such commissioners, to reside in
4686-542: Was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. "Never could a fateful measure have had a more quiet passage", wrote historian Peter Thomas. The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act 1767 (7 Geo 3 c 56), which was intended to make the tea of the British East India Company more competitive with smuggled Dutch tea. The Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to
4757-412: Was no difference between "internal" and "external" taxes, and that any taxes imposed on the colonies by Parliament for the sake of raising a revenue were unconstitutional. Dickinson warned colonists not to concede to the taxes just because the rates were low since this would set a dangerous precedent. Dickinson sent a copy of his "Letters" to James Otis of Massachusetts , informing Otis that "whenever
4828-472: Was not an immediate high level of protest over the Sugar Act in either New England or the rest of the colonies. That would begin in the later part of the next year when the Stamp Act 1765 was passed. The Sugar Act 1764 was repealed in 1766 and replaced with the Revenue Act 1766 , which reduced the tax to one penny per gallon on molasses imports, British or foreign. This occurred around the same time that
4899-595: Was passed together with the New York Restraining Act, on 2 July 1767. ' Indemnity ' means 'security or protection against a loss or other financial burden'. The Indemnity Act 1767 reduced taxes on the British East India Company when they imported tea into England. This allowed them to re-export the tea to the colonies more cheaply and resell it to the colonists. Until this time, all items had to be shipped to England first from wherever they were made and then re-exported to their destination, including to
4970-527: Was significantly controversial since the right to be secure in one's private property was an established right in Britain. This act was passed on 29 June 1767. It created a new Customs Board for the North American colonies, to be headquartered in Boston with five customs commissioners. New offices were eventually opened in other ports as well. The board was created to enforce shipping regulations and increase tax revenue. Previously, customs enforcement
5041-464: Was that any tax laid by Parliament for the purpose of raising revenue was unconstitutional. "Townshend's mistaken belief that Americans regarded internal taxes as unconstitutional and external taxes constitutional", wrote historian John Phillip Reid, "was of vital importance in the history of events leading to the Revolution." The Townshend Revenue Act received royal assent on 29 June 1767. There
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