Anthracite , also known as hard coal and black coal , is a hard, compact variety of coal that has a submetallic lustre . It has the highest carbon content, the fewest impurities, and the highest energy density of all types of coal and is the highest ranking of coals.
103-469: The Coal Region of Northeastern Pennsylvania in the United States has the largest known deposits of anthracite coal in the world with an estimated reserve of seven billion short tons . China accounts for the majority of global production; other producers include Russia , Ukraine , North Korea , South Africa , Vietnam , Australia , Canada , and the United States . Total production in 2020
206-472: A honeycomb lattice with a bond length of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes is 0.335 nm. Bonding between layers is relatively weak van der Waals bonds , which allows the graphene-like layers to be easily separated and to glide past each other. Electrical conductivity perpendicular to the layers is consequently about 1000 times lower. There are two allotropic forms called alpha ( hexagonal ) and beta ( rhombohedral ), differing in terms of
309-540: A canal across the Appalachians' Allegheny Mountains to Pittsburgh . In 1827, LC&N built the nation's second railroad, whose Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway ran from Summit Hill to present-day Jim Thorpe . The region's population grew rapidly following the American Civil War , due largely to the expansion of the mining and railroad industries. English, Welsh, Irish, and German immigrants formed
412-429: A cost-efficient substitute for coke in processes such as sintering and pelletising , as well as pulverised coal injection (PCI) and direct injection into blast furnaces . They can also be used in water purification and domestically as a smokeless fuel . HG and UHG anthracite account for a small percentage of the total anthracite market. The major producing countries are Russia, Ukraine, Vietnam, South Africa and
515-771: A death knell for deep mining, leading to its ultimate shutdown in the mid-1960s; almost all current anthracite mining is done via strip mining. Strip mines and fires, most notably in Centralia , remain visible. Several violent incidents in the history of the U.S. labor movement occurred within the coal region, which was the home of the Molly Maguires and the location of the Lattimer Massacre . Tours of underground mines can be taken in Ashland , Scranton , and Lansford , each of which have museums dedicated to
618-596: A domestic fuel since at least medieval times, when it was mined near Saundersfoot . More recently, large-scale mining of anthracite took place across the western part of the South Wales Coalfield until the late 20th century. In the United States, anthracite coal history began in 1790 in Pottsville, Pennsylvania , with the discovery of coal made by the hunter Necho Allen in what is now known as
721-665: A fireplace. Anthracite differs from wood in that it needs a draft from the bottom, and Judge Fell proved with his grate design that it was a viable heating fuel. In spring 1808, John and Abijah Smith shipped the first commercially mined load of anthracite down the Susquehanna River from Plymouth, Pennsylvania, marking the birth of commercial anthracite mining in the United States. From that first mine, production rose to an all-time high of over 100 million tons in 1917. The difficulty of igniting anthracite inhibited its early use, especially in blast furnaces for smelting iron. With
824-462: A fluidized bed at 1000–1300 °C then it is isotropic turbostratic, and is used in blood-contacting devices like mechanical heart valves and is called pyrolytic carbon , and is not diamagnetic. Pyrolytic graphite and pyrolytic carbon are often confused but are very different materials. ) For a long time graphite has been considered to be hydrophobic. However, recent studies using highly ordered pyrolytic graphite have shown that freshly clean graphite
927-454: A gear lubricant for mining machinery, and to lubricate locks. Having low-grit graphite, or even better, no-grit graphite (ultra high purity), is highly desirable. It can be used as a dry powder, in water or oil, or as colloidal graphite (a permanent suspension in a liquid). An estimate based on USGS graphite consumption statistics indicates that 2,200 tonnes were used in this fashion in 2005. Metal can also be impregnated into graphite to create
1030-523: A growth in demand for graphite in the late 1980s and early 1990s – a growth driven by portable electronics, such as portable CD players and power tools . Laptops , mobile phones , tablets , and smartphone products have increased the demand for batteries. Electric-vehicle batteries are anticipated to increase graphite demand. As an example, a lithium-ion battery in a fully electric Nissan Leaf contains nearly 40 kg of graphite. Radioactive graphite removed from nuclear reactors has been investigated as
1133-431: A ladle or red-hot steel ingots and decrease heat loss, or as firestops fitted around a fire door or in sheet metal collars surrounding plastic pipe (during a fire, the graphite expands and chars to resist fire penetration and spread), or to make high-performance gasket material for high-temperature use. After being made into graphite foil, the foil is machined and assembled into the bipolar plates in fuel cells . The foil
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#17327824370171236-474: A large portion of this increase. This immigration wave was followed, in turn, by Polish, Slovak, Ruthenian, Ukrainian, Hungarian, Italian, Russian, Belarusian, Jewish, and Lithuanian immigrants. The influence of these immigrant populations is still strongly felt in the region, with various towns featuring and offering various ethnic characters and cuisine. In 1959, the Knox Mine Disaster served as
1339-506: A less elaborate classification is adopted, but great care is exercised in hand-picking and cleaning the coal from particles of pyrites in the higher qualities known as best malting coals, which are used for kiln-drying malt. Anthracite dust can be made into briquettes and is sold in the United Kingdom under trade names such as Phurnacite , Ancit and Taybrite. On the opposite end from high-grade anthracite coal, semianthracite coal
1442-661: A plague of diseases and possibly war, opening up the Susquehanna Valley and all of Pennsylvania to European settlers. Settlement in the region predates the American Revolution . Both Delaware and Susquehannock power had been broken by disease and wars between Native American tribes before the British took over the Dutch and Swedish colonies and settled Pennsylvania. The first discovery of anthracite coal in
1545-646: A processing plant there, and a factory to manufacture pencils, crucibles and other products in New Jersey, described in the Engineering & Mining Journal 21 December 1878. The Dixon pencil is still in production. The beginnings of the revolutionary froth flotation process are associated with graphite mining. Included in the E&;MJ article on the Dixon Crucible Company is a sketch of
1648-403: A region of Northeastern Pennsylvania . It is known for being home to the largest known deposits of anthracite coal in the world with an estimated reserve of seven billion short tons. The region is typically defined as comprising five Pennsylvania counties, Carbon County , Lackawanna County , Luzerne County , Northumberland County , and Schuylkill County . It is home to 910,716 people as of
1751-509: A result of the reduction of sedimentary carbon compounds during metamorphism . It also occurs in igneous rocks and in meteorites . Minerals associated with graphite include quartz , calcite , micas and tourmaline . The principal export sources of mined graphite are in order of tonnage: China , Mexico , Canada , Brazil , and Madagascar . Significant unexploited graphite resources also exists in Colombia 's Cordillera Central in
1854-535: A self-lubricating alloy for application in extreme conditions, such as bearings for machines exposed to high or low temperatures. The ability to leave marks on paper and other objects gave graphite its name, given in 1789 by German mineralogist Abraham Gottlob Werner . It stems from γράφειν ("graphein") , meaning to write or draw in Ancient Greek . From the 16th century, all pencils were made with leads of English natural graphite, but modern pencil lead
1957-436: A small but significant market for natural graphite. Around 7% of the 1.1 million tonnes produced in 2011 was used to make pencils. Low-quality amorphous graphite is used and sourced mainly from China. In art, graphite is typically used to create detailed and precise drawings, as it allows for a wide range of values (light to dark) to be achieved. It can also be used to create softer, more subtle lines and shading. Graphite
2060-433: A source of electricity for low-power applications. This waste is rich in carbon-14 , which emits electrons through beta decay , so it could potentially be used as the basis for a betavoltaic device . This concept is known as the diamond battery . Graphite is 'predominant anode material used today in lithium-ion batteries'. EV batteries contain four basic components: anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator. While there
2163-499: A transition stage between ordinary bituminous coal and graphite , produced by the more or less complete elimination of the volatile constituents of the former, and it is found most abundantly in areas that have been subjected to considerable stresses and pressures, such as the flanks of great mountain ranges. Anthracite is associated with strongly deformed sedimentary rocks that were subjected to higher pressures and temperatures (but short of metamorphic conditions) just as bituminous coal
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#17327824370172266-964: Is a crystalline allotrope (form) of the element carbon . It consists of many stacked layers of graphene , typically in the excess of hundreds of layers. Graphite occurs naturally and is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions . Synthetic and natural graphite are consumed on a large scale (1.3 million metric tons per year in 2022) for uses in many critical industries including refractories (50%), lithium-ion batteries (18%), foundries (10%), lubricants (5%), among others (17%). Under extremely high pressures and extremely high temperatures it converts to diamond . Graphite's low cost, thermal and chemical inertness and characteristic conductivity of heat and electricity finds numerous applications in high energy and high temperature processes. Graphite occurs naturally in ores that can be classified into one of two categories either amorphous (microcrystalline) or crystalline (flake or lump/chip) which
2369-630: Is a commercial product proposal for reducing the carbon footprint of lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries . It is produced from forestry waste and similar byproducts by a company in New Zealand using a novel process called thermo-catalytic graphitisation which project is supported by grants from interested parties including a forestry company in Finland and a battery maker in Hong Kong Graphite occurs in metamorphic rocks as
2472-738: Is added to increase the carbon content of the steel to a specified level. An estimate based on USGS 's graphite consumption statistics indicates that steelmakers in the US used 10,500 tonnes in this fashion in 2005. Natural amorphous and fine flake graphite are used in brake linings or brake shoes for heavier (nonautomotive) vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for asbestos . This use has been important for quite some time, but nonasbestos organic (NAO) compositions are beginning to reduce graphite's market share. A brake-lining industry shake-out with some plant closures has not been beneficial, nor has an indifferent automotive market. According to
2575-550: Is also being mined. Countries producing HG and UHG anthracite include Russia and South Africa. HG and UHG anthracite are used as a coke or coal substitute in various metallurgical coal applications ( sintering , PCI , direct BF charge, pelletizing ). It plays an important role in cost reduction in the steel making process and is also used in production of ferroalloys , silicomanganese, calcium carbide and silicon carbide . South Africa exports lower-quality, higher-ash anthracite to Brazil to be used in steel-making. Anthracite
2678-434: Is also free from included soft or fibrous notches and does not soil the fingers when rubbed. Anthracitization is the transformation of bituminous coal into anthracite. The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15 percent. The heat content of anthracite ranges from 26 to 33 MJ/kg (22 to 28 million Btu / short ton ) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. The heat content of anthracite coal consumed in
2781-627: Is an electrical conductor , hence useful in such applications as arc lamp electrodes . It can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers (a phenomenon called aromaticity ). These valence electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is primarily conducted within the plane of the layers. The conductive properties of powdered graphite allow its use as pressure sensor in carbon microphones . Graphite and graphite powder are valued in industrial applications for their self-lubricating and dry lubricating properties. However,
2884-406: Is as follows: Lump, steamboat, egg and stove coals, the latter in two or three sizes, all three being above 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 in (38 mm) size on round-hole screens. High grade (HG) and ultra high grade (UHG) anthracite are the highest grades of anthracite coal. They are the purest forms of coal, having the highest degree of coalification, the highest carbon count and energy content and
2987-793: Is categorized into several grades. Standard grade is used predominantly in power generation, and high grade (HG) and ultra high grade (UHG), are used predominantly in the metallurgy sector. Anthracite accounts for about 1% of global coal reserves, and is mined in only a few countries around the world. Anthracite derives from the Greek anthrakítēs ( ἀνθρακίτης ), literally "coal-like". Other terms which refer to anthracite are black coal , hard coal , stone coal , dark coal , coffee coal , blind coal (in Scotland), Kilkenny coal (in Ireland), crow coal or craw coal , and black diamond . "Blue Coal"
3090-829: Is defined as a coal which is intermediate between anthracite coal and bituminous coal, and particularly a coal which approaches anthracite in nonvolatile character. Historically, from time to time, underground seams of coal have caught fire, often from careless or unfortunate mining activities. The pocket of ignited coal is fed oxygen by vent paths that have not yet been discovered. These can smolder for years. Commonly, exhaust vents in populated areas are soon sensed and are sealed while vents in uninhabited areas remain undiscovered. Occasionally, vents are discovered via fumes sensed by passers-by, often in forested areas. Attempts to extinguish those remaining have at times been futile, and several such combustion areas exist today. The existence of an underground combustion site can sometimes be identified in
3193-439: Is determined by the ore morphology , crystallinity , and grain size . All naturally occurring graphite deposits are formed from the metamorphism of carbonaceous sedimentary rocks , and the ore type is due to its geologic setting. Coal that has been thermally metamorphosed is the typical source of amorphous graphite. Crystalline flake graphite is mined from carbonaceous metamorphic rocks , while lump or chip graphite
Anthracite - Misplaced Pages Continue
3296-598: Is found in the Lackawanna Coal Mine in northeastern Pennsylvania , United States in and around Scranton , Pennsylvania. Locally called the Coal Region , the deposit contains 480 square miles (1,200 km) of coal-bearing rock which originally held 22.8 billion short tons (20.68 billion tonnes) of anthracite. The geographic region is roughly 100 miles (161 km) in length and 30 miles (48 km) in width. Because of historical mining and development of
3399-473: Is generally associated with less deformed or flat-lying sedimentary rocks. The compressed layers of anthracite that are deep mined in the folded Ridge and Valley Province of the Appalachian Mountains of the Coal Region of East-central Pennsylvania are extensions of the same layers of bituminous coal that are mined on the generally flat lying and undeformed sedimentary rocks further west on
3502-428: Is hydrophilic ( contact angle of 70° approximately), and it becomes hydrophobic (contact angle of 95° approximately) due to airborne pollutants (hydrocarbons) present in the atmosphere. Those contaminants also alter the electric equipotential surface of graphite by creating domains with potential differences of up to 200 mV as measured with kelvin probe force microscopy . Such contaminants can be desorbed by increasing
3605-512: Is made into heat sinks for laptop computers which keeps them cool while saving weight, and is made into a foil laminate that can be used in valve packings or made into gaskets. Old-style packings are now a minor member of this grouping: fine flake graphite in oils or greases for uses requiring heat resistance. A GAN estimate of current US natural graphite consumption in this end-use is 7,500 tonnes. Graphite forms intercalation compounds with some metals and small molecules. In these compounds,
3708-487: Is mined from veins which occur in high-grade metamorphic regions. There are serious negative environmental impacts to graphite mining. Synthetic graphite is graphite of high purity produced by thermal graphitization at temperatures in excess of 2,100 °C from hydrocarbon materials most commonly by a process known as the Acheson process . The high temperatures are maintained for weeks, and are required not only to form
3811-488: Is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay; it was invented by Nicolas-Jacques Conté in 1795. It is chemically unrelated to the metal lead , whose ores had a similar appearance, hence the continuation of the name. Plumbago is another older term for natural graphite used for drawing , typically as a lump of the mineral without a wood casing. The term plumbago drawing is normally restricted to 17th and 18th-century works, mostly portraits. Today, pencils are still
3914-481: Is much focus on the cathode materials – lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, etc. – the predominant anode material used in virtually all EV batteries is graphite. Natural graphite in steelmaking mostly goes into raising the carbon content in molten steel; it can also serve to lubricate the dies used to extrude hot steel. Carbon additives face competitive pricing from alternatives such as synthetic graphite powder, petroleum coke, and other forms of carbon. A carbon raiser
4017-448: Is now a minor part of refractories . In the mid-1980s, the carbon- magnesite brick became important, and a bit later the alumina-graphite shape. As of 2017 the order of importance is: alumina-graphite shapes, carbon-magnesite brick, Monolithics (gunning and ramming mixes), and then crucibles. Crucibles began using very large flake graphite, and carbon-magnesite bricks requiring not quite so large flake graphite; for these and others there
4120-452: Is now much more flexibility in the size of flake required, and amorphous graphite is no longer restricted to low-end refractories. Alumina-graphite shapes are used as continuous casting ware, such as nozzles and troughs, to convey the molten steel from ladle to mold, and carbon magnesite bricks line steel converters and electric-arc furnaces to withstand extreme temperatures. Graphite blocks are also used in parts of blast furnace linings where
4223-553: Is of standard-grade anthracite, which is used in power generation. Increased demand in China has made that country into a net importer of the fuel, mostly from Vietnam, another major producer of anthracite for power generation, although increasing domestic consumption in Vietnam means that exports may be scaled back. Current U.S. anthracite production averages around five million tons per year. Of that, about 1.8 million tons were mined in
Anthracite - Misplaced Pages Continue
4326-438: Is popular among artists because it is easy to control, easy to erase, and produces a clean, professional look. It is also relatively inexpensive and widely available. Many artists use graphite in conjunction with other media, such as charcoal or ink, to create a range of effects and textures in their work. Graphite of various hardness or softness results in different qualities and tones when used as an artistic medium . Graphite
4429-404: Is probably the most-used lubricant in pinewood derbies . Natural graphite has found uses in zinc-carbon batteries , electric motor brushes, and various specialized applications. Railroads would often mix powdered graphite with waste oil or linseed oil to create a heat-resistant protective coating for the exposed portions of a steam locomotive's boiler, such as the smokebox or lower part of
4532-479: Is processed into different sizes by what is commonly referred to as a breaker . The large coal is raised from the mine and passed through breakers with toothed rolls to reduce the lumps to smaller pieces. The smaller pieces are separated into different sizes by a system of graduated sieves, placed in descending order. Sizing is necessary for different types of stoves and furnaces. Anthracite is classified into three grades, depending on its carbon content. Standard grade
4635-456: Is similar in appearance to the mineraloid jet and is sometimes used as a jet imitation. Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by its greater hardness (2.75–3 on the Mohs scale ), its higher relative density of 1.3–1.4, and luster, which is often semi-metallic with a mildly green reflection. It contains a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. It
4738-624: Is the term for a once-popular and trademarked brand of anthracite, mined by the Glen Alden Coal Company in Pennsylvania , and sprayed with a blue dye at the mine before shipping to its Northeastern U.S. markets to distinguish it from its competitors. Culm has different meanings in British and American English . In British English, culm is the imperfect anthracite, located predominantly north Devon and Cornwall , which
4841-741: Is the world's largest previously undeveloped anthracite deposit. It is owned by the Australian publicly-traded company Atrum Coal and has 1.57 billion tonnes of high grade anthracite. Anthracites of newer Tertiary or Cretaceous age are found in the Crowsnest Pass part of the Rocky Mountains in Canada and at various places in the Andes in Peru. Coal Region The Coal Region is
4944-642: Is used as a domestic fuel and in industrial power-generation. The rarer higher grades of anthracite are purer – i.e., they have a higher carbon content – and are used in steel-making and other segments of the metallurgical industries. Technical characteristics of the various grades of anthracite are as follows: Anthracite is divided by size mainly into applications that need lumps (typically larger than 10 mm) – various industrial processes where it replaces metallurgical coke , and domestic fuel – and those that need fines (less than 10 mm), such as sintering and pelletising. The common American classification by size
5047-464: Is what makes it the dominant anode material in lithium-ion batteries. In 1893, Charles Street of Le Carbone discovered a process for making artificial graphite. In the mid-1890s, Edward Goodrich Acheson (1856–1931) accidentally invented another way to produce synthetic graphite after synthesizing carborundum (also called silicon carbide). He discovered that overheating carborundum, as opposed to pure carbon, produced almost pure graphite. While studying
5150-500: The Allegheny Plateau of Kentucky and West Virginia , Eastern Ohio , and Western Pennsylvania . In the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined to the contorted portion west of Swansea and Llanelli , the central and eastern portions producing steam coal , coking coal and domestic house coals. Anthracite shows some alteration by the development of secondary divisional planes and fissures so that
5253-582: The Coal Region . Legend has it that Allen fell asleep at the base of Broad Mountain and woke to the sight of a large fire because his campfire had ignited an outcrop of anthracite coal. By 1795, an anthracite-fired iron furnace had been built on the Schuylkill River . Anthracite was first experimentally burned as a residential heating fuel in the US on 11 February 1808, by Judge Jesse Fell in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania , on an open grate in
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#17327824370175356-782: The Lehigh Valley and Berks County regions, south of the Endless Mountains , west of the Pocono Mountains , and east of the Susquehanna Valley . The region lies at the northern edge of the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians , and draws its name from the vast deposits of anthracite coal that can be found under several of the valleys in the region. The Wyoming Valley is the most densely populated of these valleys, and contains
5459-527: The USGS , US natural graphite consumption in brake linings was 6,510 tonnes in 2005. A foundry-facing mold wash is a water-based paint of amorphous or fine flake graphite. Painting the inside of a mold with it and letting it dry leaves a fine graphite coat that will ease the separation of the object cast after the hot metal has cooled. Graphite lubricants are specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures, as forging die lubricant, an antiseize agent,
5562-415: The firebox . The Scope soldering iron uses a graphite tip as its heating element. Expanded graphite is made by immersing natural flake graphite in a bath of chromic acid , then concentrated sulfuric acid , which forces the crystal lattice planes apart, thus expanding the graphite. The expanded graphite can be used to make graphite foil or used directly as a "hot top" compound to insulate molten metal in
5665-414: The "floating tanks" used in the age-old process of extracting graphite. Because graphite is so light, the mix of graphite and waste was sent through a final series of water tanks where a cleaner graphite "floated" off, which left waste to drop out. In an 1877 patent, the two brothers Bessel (Adolph and August) of Dresden, Germany, took this "floating" process a step further and added a small amount of oil to
5768-454: The 100th anniversary of flotation. In the United States, in 1885, Hezekiah Bradford of Philadelphia patented a similar process, but it is uncertain if his process was used successfully in the nearby graphite deposits of Chester County, Pennsylvania, a major producer by the 1890s. The Bessel process was limited in use, primarily because of the abundant cleaner deposits found around the globe, which needed not much more than hand-sorting to gather
5871-542: The 2010 census. The Coal Region is bordered by Berks , Lehigh , and Northampton Counties (including the Lehigh Valley ) to its south; Columbia and Dauphin Counties to its west; Wyoming County to its north; and Warren County, New Jersey to its east. By the 18th century, the Susquehannock Native American tribe that had inhabited the region was reduced 90 percent in three years of
5974-546: The English navy. This particular deposit of graphite was extremely pure and soft, and could easily be cut into sticks. Because of its military importance, this unique mine and its production were strictly controlled by the Crown. During the 19th century, graphite's uses greatly expanded to include stove polish, lubricants, paints, crucibles, foundry facings, and pencils , a major factor in the expansion of educational tools during
6077-531: The English term for this grey metallic-sheened mineral and even to the leadworts or plumbagos , plants with flowers that resemble this colour. The term black lead usually refers to a powdered or processed graphite, matte black in color. Abraham Gottlob Werner coined the name graphite ("writing stone") in 1789. He attempted to clear up the confusion between molybdena, plumbago and black lead after Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1778 proved that these were at least three different minerals. Scheele's analysis showed that
6180-818: The Lehigh and Delaware Canals. Meanwhile, three brothers had similar ideas from near the turn of the century, and about the same time began mining coal in Carbondale , 15 miles (24.1 km) northeast of Scranton, but high enough to run a gravity railroad to the Delaware River and feed New York City via the Delaware and Hudson Canal . Pennsylvania began the Delaware Canal to connect the Lehigh Canal to Philadelphia and environs, while funding to build
6283-413: The US. The primary sizes used in the United States for domestic heating are Chestnut, Pea, Buckwheat and Rice, with Chestnut and Rice being the most popular. Chestnut and Pea are used in hand fired furnaces while the smaller Rice and Buckwheat are used in automatic stoker furnaces. Rice is currently the most sought-after size due to the ease of use and popularity of that type of furnace. In South Wales ,
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#17327824370176386-465: The United States averages 29 MJ/kg (25 million Btu/ton), on the as-received basis, containing both inherent moisture and mineral matter. Since the 1980s, anthracite refuse or mine waste has been used for coal power generation in a form of recycling . The practice known as reclamation is being applied to culm piles antedating laws requiring mine owners to restore lands to their approximate original condition. Chemically, anthracite may be considered as
6489-546: The above refractories are used to make steel and account for 75% of refractory consumption; the rest is used by a variety of industries, such as cement. According to the USGS , US natural graphite consumption in refractories comprised 12,500 tonnes in 2010. The use of graphite in batteries has increased since the 1970s. Natural and synthetic graphite are used as an anode material to construct electrodes in major battery technologies. The demand for batteries, primarily nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries , caused
6592-406: The beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heated to 1300 °C for four hours. The equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond is well established theoretically and experimentally. The pressure changes linearly between 1.7 GPa at 0 K and 12 GPa at 5000 K (the diamond/graphite/liquid triple point ). However,
6695-434: The chemical compounds molybdenum sulfide ( molybdenite ), lead(II) sulfide ( galena ) and graphite were three different soft black minerals. Natural graphite is mostly used for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded graphite, brake linings, foundry facings, and lubricants. The use of graphite as a refractory (heat-resistant) material began before 1900 with graphite crucibles used to hold molten metal; this
6798-577: The cities of Wilkes-Barre , Greater Pittston , and Scranton . Hazleton and Pottsville are two of the larger cities in the southern portion of the region. The Lehigh and Schuylkill rivers both originate within the region, while the much larger Susquehanna River skirts the northern edge. Academics have made the distinction between the North Anthracite Coal Field and the South Anthracite Coal Field,
6901-399: The development of the hot blast in 1828, which used waste heat to preheat combustion air, anthracite became a preferred fuel, accounting for 45% of US pig iron production within 15 years. Anthracite iron smelting was later displaced by coke . From the late 19th century until the 1950s, anthracite was the most popular fuel for heating homes and other buildings in the northern US, until it
7004-481: The early 20th century US, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad started using only the more expensive anthracite coal in its passenger locomotives, dubbed themselves "The Road of Anthracite", and advertised widely that travelers on their line could make railway journeys without getting their clothing stained with soot. The advertisements featured a white-clad woman named Phoebe Snow and poems containing lines like "My gown stays white / From morn till night / Upon
7107-462: The effects of high temperature on carborundum, he had found that silicon vaporizes at about 4,150 °C (7,500 °F), leaving the carbon behind in graphitic carbon. This graphite became valuable as a lubricant. Acheson's technique for producing silicon carbide and graphite is named the Acheson process . In 1896, Acheson received a patent for his method of synthesizing graphite, and in 1897 started commercial production. The Acheson Graphite Co.
7210-480: The ejecta when supernovae exploded or low to intermediate-sized stars expelled their outer envelopes late in their lives. Graphite may be the second or third oldest mineral in the Universe. Graphite consists of sheets of trigonal planar carbon. The individual layers are called graphene . In each layer, each carbon atom is bonded to three other atoms forming a continuous layer of sp bonded carbon hexagons, like
7313-613: The equilibrium line: at 2000 K , a pressure of 35 GPa is needed. The acoustic and thermal properties of graphite are highly anisotropic , since phonons propagate quickly along the tightly bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another. Graphite's high thermal stability and electrical and thermal conductivity facilitate its widespread use as electrodes and refractories in high temperature material processing applications. However, in oxygen-containing atmospheres graphite readily oxidizes to form carbon dioxide at temperatures of 700 °C and above. Graphite
7416-490: The fewest impurities (moisture, ash and volatiles). High grade and ultra high grade anthracite are harder than standard grade anthracite, and have a higher relative density. An example of a chemical formula for high-grade anthracite would be C 240 H 90 O 4 NS, representing 94% carbon. UHG anthracite typically has a minimum carbon content of 95%. They also differ in usage from standard grade anthracite (used mainly for power generation), being employed mainly in metallurgy as
7519-444: The fine particles used as filter media, and as an ingredient in charcoal briquettes . Anthracite was an authorised fuel in terms of the United Kingdom's Clean Air Act 1993 , meaning that it could be used within a designated Smoke Control Area such as the central London boroughs. China today mines by far the largest share of global anthracite production, accounting for more than three-quarters of global output. Most Chinese production
7622-490: The first great rise of education for the masses. The British Empire controlled most of the world's production (especially from Ceylon), but production from Austrian, German, and American deposits expanded by mid-century. For example, the Dixon Crucible Company of Jersey City, New Jersey, founded by Joseph Dixon and partner Orestes Cleveland in 1845, opened mines in the Lake Ticonderoga district of New York, built
7725-598: The form of graphite-bearing schists . In meteorites , graphite occurs with troilite and silicate minerals . Small graphitic crystals in meteoritic iron are called cliftonite . Some microscopic grains have distinctive isotopic compositions, indicating that they were formed before the Solar System . They are one of about 12 known types of minerals that predate the Solar System and have also been detected in molecular clouds . These minerals were formed in
7828-800: The graphite from the precursor carbons but to also vaporize any impurities that may be present, including hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, organics, and metals. This is why synthetic graphite is highly pure in excess of 99.9% C purity, but typically has lower density, conductivity and a higher porosity than its natural equivalent. Synthetic graphite can also be formed into very large flakes (cm) while maintaining its high purity unlike almost all sources of natural graphite. Synthetic graphite has also been known to be formed by other methods including by chemical vapor deposition from hydrocarbons at temperatures above 2,500 K (2,230 °C), by decomposition of thermally unstable carbides or by crystallizing from metal melts supersaturated with carbon . Biographite
7931-460: The high thermal conductivity of the graphite is critical to ensuring adequate cooling of the bottom and hearth of the furnace. High-purity monolithics are often used as a continuous furnace lining instead of carbon-magnesite bricks. The US and European refractories industry had a crisis in 2000–2003, with an indifferent market for steel and a declining refractory consumption per tonne of steel underlying firm buyouts and many plant closures. Many of
8034-612: The host molecule or atom gets "sandwiched" between the graphite layers, resulting in a type of compound with variable stoichiometry. A prominent example of an intercalation compound is potassium graphite, denoted by the formula KC 8 . Some graphite intercalation compounds are superconductors . The highest transition temperature (by June 2009) T c = 11.5 K is achieved in CaC 6 , and it further increases under applied pressure (15.1 K at 8 GPa). Graphite's ability to intercalate lithium ions without significant damage from swelling
8137-744: The inconsistent mismanagement leased the Lehigh Coal Mining Company and founded the Lehigh Navigation Company. Construction of navigation and locks and dams on the Lehigh River rapids, later known as the Lehigh Canal , was completed in 1820. In 1822, the two companies merged as the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company (LC&N). By 1824, the company was shipping large volumes of coal down
8240-663: The lands overlying the coal, it is estimated that 7 billion short tons (6.3 billion tonnes) of minable reserves remain. Other areas of the United States also contain several smaller deposits of anthracite, such as those historically mined in Crested Butte, Colorado . Among current producers, Russia, China, Poland, and Ukraine have the largest estimated recoverable reserves of anthracite. Other countries with substantial reserves include Vietnam and North Korea. The Groundhog Anthracite Deposit in British Columbia , Canada,
8343-686: The lower region bearing the further classification Anthracite Uplands in physical geology. The Southern Coal Region can be further broken into the Southeastern and Southwestern Coal Regions, with the divide between the Little Schuylkill River and easternmost tributary of the Schuylkill River with the additional divide line from the Lehigh River watershed extended through Barnesville the determining basins. Graphite Graphite ( / ˈ ɡ r æ f aɪ t / )
8446-593: The most economical method of obtaining power, requiring only 1 pound per horsepower-hour (0.6 kg / kWh ), or less. Large quantities of anthracite for power purposes were formerly exported from South Wales to France, Switzerland and parts of Germany. As of April 2013, widespread commercial anthracite mining in Wales has now ceased, although a few large open cast sites remain, along with some relatively small drift mining operations. Anthracite generally costs two to six times as much as regular coal. In June 2008,
8549-463: The original stratification lines are not always easily seen. The thermal conductivity is also higher; a lump of anthracite feels perceptibly colder when held in the warm hand than a similar lump of bituminous coal at the same temperature. Anthracite has a history of use in blast furnaces for iron smelting; however, it lacked the pore space of metallurgical coke , which eventually replaced anthracite. In southwest Wales , anthracite has been burned as
8652-457: The phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At normal temperature and pressure , 20 °C (293 K) and 1 standard atmosphere (0.10 MPa), the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible. However, at temperatures above about 4500 K , diamond rapidly converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above
8755-408: The plant closures resulted from the acquisition of Harbison-Walker Refractories by RHI AG and some plants had their equipment auctioned off. Since much of the lost capacity was for carbon-magnesite brick, graphite consumption within the refractories area moved towards alumina-graphite shapes and Monolithics, and away from the brick. The major source of carbon-magnesite brick is now China. Almost all of
8858-575: The pure graphite. The state of the art, c. 1900 , is described in the Canadian Department of Mines report on graphite mines and mining when Canadian deposits began to become important producers of graphite. Historically, graphite was called black lead or plumbago . Plumbago was commonly used in its massive mineral form. Both of these names arise from confusion with the similar-appearing lead ores, particularly galena . The Latin word for lead, plumbum , gave its name to
8961-564: The region occurred in 1762, and the first mine was established 13 years later, in 1775 near present-day Pittston . In 1791, anthracite was discovered by a hunter atop Pisgah Ridge , and by 1792 the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company began producing and shipping coal to Philadelphia via present-day Jim Thorpe from the Southern Anthracite Field and Summit Hill , built between Schuylkill County and what would become Carbon County . In 1818, customers fed up with
9064-645: The region's historic anthracite mining industry. Patch towns and small villages, often historically founded and owned by mining companies, also still exist. While they are no longer company-owned, most of them still exist as boroughs or townships, and one of them, the Eckley Miners' Village , is a museum and preserved historical town owned and administered by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission , which seeks to restore patch towns to their original state. The Coal Region lies north of
9167-562: The road of Anthracite". Similarly, the Great Western Railway in the UK was able to use its access to anthracite (it dominated the anthracite region) to earn a reputation for efficiency and cleanliness unmatched by other UK companies. Internal combustion motors driven by the so-called "mixed", "poor", "semi-water" or " Dowson gas " produced by the gasification of anthracite with air (and a small proportion of steam) were at one time
9270-405: The same molecular structure as graphite. It is sometimes called white graphite , due to its similar properties. When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic graphite . It is also highly anisotropic, and diamagnetic , thus it will float in mid-air above a strong magnet. (If it is made in
9373-405: The stacking of the graphene layers: stacking in alpha graphite is ABA, as opposed to ABC stacking in the energetically less stable beta graphite. Rhombohedral graphite cannot occur in pure form. Natural graphite, or commercial natural graphite, contains 5 to 15% rhombohedral graphite and this may be due to intensive milling. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through shear forces, and
9476-402: The state of Pennsylvania. Mining of anthracite coal continues to this day in eastern Pennsylvania, and contributes up to 1% to the gross state product. More than 2,000 people were employed in the mining of anthracite coal in 1995. Most of the mining as of that date involved reclaiming coal from slag heaps (waste piles from past coal mining) at nearby closed mines. Some underground anthracite coal
9579-592: The tanks and boiled the mix – an agitation or frothing step – to collect the graphite, the first steps toward the future flotation process. Adolph Bessel received the Wohler Medal for the patented process that upgraded the recovery of graphite to 90% from the German deposit. In 1977, the German Society of Mining Engineers and Metallurgists organized a special symposium dedicated to their discovery and, thus,
9682-600: The temperature of graphite to approximately 50 °C or higher. Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials, due to their shear-planes, brittleness, and inconsistent mechanical properties. In the 4th millennium BCE , during the Neolithic Age in southeastern Europe, the Marița culture used graphite in a ceramic paint for decorating pottery . Sometime before 1565 (some sources say as early as 1500), an enormous deposit of graphite
9785-632: The use of graphite is limited by its tendency to facilitate pitting corrosion in some stainless steel , and to promote galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals (due to its electrical conductivity). It is also corrosive to aluminium in the presence of moisture. For this reason, the US Air Force banned its use as a lubricant in aluminium aircraft, and discouraged its use in aluminium-containing automatic weapons. Even graphite pencil marks on aluminium parts may facilitate corrosion. Another high-temperature lubricant, hexagonal boron nitride , has
9888-484: The vast majority of steel furnaces . They are made from petroleum coke after it is mixed with coal tar pitch . They are extruded and shaped, then baked to carbonize the binder (pitch). This is finally graphitized by heating it to temperatures approaching 3,000 °C (5,430 °F), at which the carbon atoms arrange into graphite. They can vary in size up to 3.5 m (11 ft) long and 75 cm (30 in) in diameter. An increasing proportion of global steel
9991-443: The wholesale cost of anthracite was US$ 150/ short ton , falling to $ 107/ton in 2021; it makes up 1% of U.S. coal production. The principal use of anthracite today is for a domestic fuel in either hand-fired stoves or automatic stoker furnaces. It delivers high energy per its weight and burns cleanly with little soot, making it ideal for this purpose. Its high value makes it prohibitively expensive for power plant use. Other uses include
10094-407: The winter where fallen snow is seen to be melted by the warmth conducted from below. Proposals for harnessing this heat as geothermal energy have not been successful. A vein of anthracite that caught fire in Centralia, Pennsylvania , in 1962 has been burning ever since, turning the once-thriving borough into a ghost town . Geologically, the largest most concentrated anthracite deposit in the world
10197-426: Was 615 million tons. Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal, but still represents low-grade metamorphism, in which the carbon content is between 86% and 97%. The term is applied to those varieties of coal which do not give off tarry or other hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition . Anthracite is difficult to ignite, and burns with a short, blue, and smokeless flame. Anthracite
10300-466: Was discovered on the approach to Grey Knotts from the hamlet of Seathwaite in Borrowdale parish , Cumbria , England , which the locals found useful for marking sheep. During the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603), Borrowdale graphite was used as a refractory material to line molds for cannonballs, resulting in rounder, smoother balls that could be fired farther, contributing to the strength of
10403-488: Was formed in 1899. Synthetic graphite can also be prepared from polyimide and then commercialized. Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) is the highest-quality synthetic form of graphite. It is used in scientific research, in particular, as a length standard for the calibration of scanning probe microscopes . Graphite electrodes carry the electricity that melts scrap iron and steel, and sometimes direct-reduced iron (DRI), in electric arc furnaces , which are
10506-546: Was supplanted by oil-burning systems, and more recently natural gas systems. Many large public buildings, such as schools, were heated with anthracite-burning furnaces through the 1980s. During the American Civil War , Confederate blockade runners used anthracite as a smokeless fuel for their boilers to avoid revealing their position to the blockaders. The invention of the Wootten firebox enabled locomotives to directly burn anthracite efficiently, particularly waste culm. In
10609-549: Was used as a pigment . The term is also used to refer to some carboniferous rock strata found in both Britain and in the Rhenish hill countries, also known as the Culm Measures . In Britain, it may also refer to coal exported from Britain during the 19th century. In American English, "culm" refers to the waste or slack from anthracite mining, mostly dust and small pieces not suitable for use in home furnaces. Anthracite
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