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132-464: In pre-colonial times, the rules of customary law in much of what is today Malawi attributed the ownership of land to the African communities that occupied it. Community leaders could allow community members to use specified areas of communal land and to retain it for as long as it was in productive use, but they did not usually grant its use to outsiders. Neither the leaders nor the current members of

264-461: A plateau in southern Malawi , located east of the Shire River . It is a major agricultural area and the most densely populated part of the country. The highlands cover an area of roughly 7250 square kilometers. the plateau varies in elevation from 600 to 1100 meters, with various hills and mountains rising higher. The highest peak is Zomba Mountain at 2087 meters. The highlands are bounded on

396-606: A referendum in 1993, where the populace voted for a multi-party democracy . In late 1993, a presidential council was formed, the life presidency was abolished and a new constitution was put into place, effectively ending the MCP's rule. In 1994 the first multi-party elections were held in Malawi, and Banda was defeated by Bakili Muluzi (a former Secretary General of the MCP and former Banda Cabinet Minister). Re-elected in 1999, Muluzi remained president until 2004, when Bingu wa Mutharika

528-408: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.74/10, ranking it 96th globally out of 172 countries. Malawi is among the world's least developed countries. Around 85% of the population lives in rural areas. The economy is based on agriculture, and more than one-third of GDP and 90% of export revenues come from this. In the past, the economy has been dependent on substantial economic aid from

660-532: A British Consul took up residence there in 1883. The Portuguese government was also interested in the area, so, to prevent Portuguese occupation, the British government sent Harry Johnston as British consul with instructions to make treaties with local rulers beyond Portuguese jurisdiction. In 1889, a British protectorate was proclaimed over the Shire Highlands, which was extended in 1891 to include

792-543: A President who is both Head of State and Head of Government , first and second Vice Presidents, and the Cabinet of Malawi . The President and Vice President are elected together every five years. A second Vice President may be appointed by the President if so chosen, although they must be from a different party. The members of the Cabinet of Malawi are appointed by the President and can be from either inside or outside of

924-725: A commission of enquiry was set up. Abrahams spent around 10 weeks in Nyasaland in 1946, taking evidence from colonial officials, estate owners and settlers, missionaries, African politicians and chiefs, and visiting almost all parts of the protectorate. He submitted his report in October 1946 and it was published in early 1947. Abrahams identified the main problem was the conflicting African and European concepts of land ownership. In addition, many European landowners either acted illegally towards tenants or exercised their rights harshly and without consideration of customary practices. In part, this

1056-663: A community could alienate its land, which they held in trust for future generations. In the period before a British protectorate was proclaimed 1891, the African Lakes Company and several individuals, notably Eugene Sharrer , Alexander Low Bruce (the son-in-law of David Livingstone ) and John Buchanan and his brothers, claimed that they had made treaties of protection or purchase agreements with various chiefs, under which they had become owners of large areas of land. The chiefs had no understanding of English concepts of land tenure and may have intended only to grant

1188-512: A cooler climate and more rainfall than the surrounding lowlands, and are home to distinct forests, woodlands, and grasslands that make up the South Malawi montane forest-grassland mosaic . The northernmost portion of the plateau includes a line of hills – Chinduzi, Mongolowe, Chaone, and Chikala – that extend 40 km east and west. The taller Zomba Plateau south of them. The northern hills are made up of syenite and nepheline syenite, and

1320-442: A couple perceived as homosexual (a man and a trans woman ) faced extensive jail time when convicted. The convicted pair, sentenced to the maximum of 14 years of hard labour each, were pardoned two weeks later following the intervention of United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon . In May 2012, then-President Joyce Banda pledged to repeal laws criminalising homosexuality. It was her successor, Peter Mutharika , who imposed

1452-477: A general claim to sovereignty over any land unless it had been expressly transferred by cession . Without sovereignty, the Crown had no right to alienate that land. However, some treaties made after July 1891 did cede sovereignty over land to the crown, but also granted the communities involved in the transfer the right to retain any land that they actually occupied as Crown tenants , leaving any vacant land free for

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1584-422: A lack of foreign exchange reserves erupted. The protests left 18 people dead and at least 44 others suffering from gunshot wounds. The Malawian flag was modified in 2010, altering three colored stripes with the white sun. It existed for a short while until 2012 when the colors of black-red-green of the old flag were restored. In April 2012, Mutharika died of a heart attack. Over a period of 48 hours, his death

1716-499: A low life expectancy and high infant mortality . HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples , Asians , and Europeans . Several languages are spoken, and there is an array of religious beliefs. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and

1848-545: A moratorium in 2015 that suspended the country's anti-gay laws pending further review of the same laws. On 26 June 2021, the country's LGBT community held the first Pride parade in Lilongwe. Malawi is a landlocked country in southeastern Africa, bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique to the south, southwest, and southeast. It lies between latitudes 9° and 18°S , and longitudes 32° and 36°E . The Great Rift Valley runs through

1980-402: A nationwide fuel shortage, which was officially blamed on logistical problems, was more likely due to the hard currency shortage caused by the jet purchase. In addition, some setbacks have been experienced, and Malawi has lost some of its ability to pay for imports due to a general shortage of foreign exchange, as investment fell 23% in 2009. There are many investment barriers in Malawi, which

2112-477: A new constitution for Nyasaland, with a clause granting Africans the majority in the colony's Legislative Council. In 1961, Banda's Malawi Congress Party (MCP) gained a majority in the Legislative Council elections , and Banda became Prime Minister in 1963. The Federation was dissolved in 1963, and on 6 July 1964, Nyasaland became independent from British rule and renamed itself Malawi, and that

2244-780: A one-party state to a multi-party democracy strengthened Malawian ties with the United States. Significant numbers of students from Malawi travel to the US for schooling, and the US has active branches of the Peace Corps , the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the Department of Health and Human Services , and the Agency for International Development in Malawi. Malawi maintained close relations with South Africa throughout

2376-542: A right to cultivate vacant land in exchange for protection. In addition, documentation was often lacking or ambiguous and, in the case of purchases, the buyers gave only trivial quantities of goods in exchange for large landholdings. Harry Johnston was appointed as the first Commissioner of the British Central Africa Protectorate in July 1891. Johnston did not consider that the Crown had

2508-589: A serious famine in 1949, Geoffrey Colby, the Governor of Nyasaland from 1948 to 1956, attempted to get this company to sell its under-used land to the government for resettlement. However, Colby made it clear he would not use the compulsory purchase powers he had been granted, preferring voluntary agreement. By ruling compulsion out, he gave unintended encouragement to the British Central Africa Company's plans to retain its estates. In 1955,

2640-515: A share of GDP) than any other African country: 28% of GDP. Beginning in 2006, the country began mixing unleaded petrol with 10% ethanol , produced in-country at two plants, to reduce dependence on imported fuel. In 2006, in response to low agricultural harvests, Malawi began a programme of fertilizer subsidies, the Fertiliser Input Subsidy Programme (FISP). It has been reported that this programme, championed by

2772-469: A single block of approximately 162,000 acres surrounded by very congested areas of Native Trust Land. The Colonial Office was only prepared to allow the Nyasaland government to offer five shillings an acre, a high price for land which a government survey showed had been over-used and deforested, but too low to be acceptable to the owner. Both the Abrahams report and the earlier Bell report considered that

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2904-417: A title to their land by virtue of a grant from the Crown, but any land which had not been so granted remained as Crown Land, which could be alienated in the future. Under this doctrine, African communities had no existing legal title to the land they occupied, and the colonial administration was free to grant away title to such land until 1936. At that time, it was recognised that much of the remaining Crown Land

3036-472: Is at 457 metres (1,500 ft) above sea level, with a maximum depth of 701 metres (2,300 ft), which means the lake bottom is over 213 metres (700 ft) below sea level at some points. In the mountainous sections of Malawi surrounding the Rift Valley, plateaus rise generally 914 to 1,219 metres (3,000 to 4,000 ft) above sea level, although some rise as high as 2,438 metres (8,000 ft) in

3168-586: Is based upon the English model and consists of a Supreme Court of Appeal, a High Court divided into three sections (general, constitutional, and commercial), an Industrial Relations Court and Magistrates Courts, the last of which is divided into five grades and includes Child Justice Courts. The judicial system has been changed several times since Malawi gained independence in 1964. Conventional courts and traditional courts have been used in varying combinations, with varying degrees of success and corruption. Malawi

3300-471: Is commemorated as the nation's Independence Day, a public holiday . Under a new constitution, Malawi became a republic with Banda as its first president. The new document also formally made Malawi a one-party state with the MCP as the only legal party. In 1971, Banda was declared president-for-life . For almost 30 years, Banda presided over a rigidly totalitarian regime, which ensured that Malawi did not suffer armed conflict. Opposition parties, including

3432-490: Is composed of three regions (the Northern, Central, and Southern regions), which are divided into 28  districts , and further into approximately 250 traditional authorities and 110 administrative wards. Local government is administered by central government-appointed regional administrators and district commissioners. For the first time in the multi-party era, local elections took place on 21 November 2000, with

3564-455: Is encouraging farmers away from tobacco towards more profitable crops, including spices such as paprika . The move away from tobacco is further fueled by likely World Health Organisation moves against the particular type of tobacco that Malawi produces, burley leaf . It is seen to be more harmful to human health than other tobacco products. India hemp is another possible alternative, but arguments have been made that it will bring more crime to

3696-457: Is estimated at 10% (2009). The country makes no significant use of natural gas. As of 2008 , Malawi does not import or export any electricity but does import all its petroleum, with no production in the country. In 2008, Malawi began testing cars that ran solely on ethanol, and the country is continuing to increase its use of ethanol. As of 2009, Malawi exports an estimated US$ 945 million in goods per year. Tobacco's world prices declined, and

3828-404: The 2020 Malawian presidential election and he became the new president. Malawi is divided into 28 districts within three regions: Central Region Northern Region Southern Region Former President Hastings Banda established a pro-Western foreign policy that continued into early 2011. It included good diplomatic relationships with many Western countries. The transition from

3960-614: The Apartheid era, which strained Malawi's relationships with other African countries. Following the collapse of apartheid in 1994, diplomatic relationships were made and maintained into 2011 between Malawi and all other African countries. In 2010, however, Malawi's relationship with Mozambique became strained, partially due to disputes over the use of the Zambezi River and an inter-country electrical grid. In 2007, Malawi established diplomatic ties with China, and Chinese investment in

4092-506: The Natives on Private Estates Ordinance 1928 , provided that each African resident in an estate was entitled to a hut site and a plot of cultivable land, in return for which they had either to work for the landowner for wages or in lieu of rent, or to grow economic crops to give the owner in lieu of rent. This measure failed in practice as it did not provide a permanent solution satisfactory either to estate owners or tenants, particularly during

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4224-553: The Shire Highlands south of the lake as an area suitable for European settlement. As the result of Livingstone's visit, several Anglican and Presbyterian missions were established in the area in the 1860s and 1870s; the African Lakes Company Limited was established in 1878 to set up a trade and transport concern, a small mission and trading settlement were established at Blantyre in 1876, and

4356-582: The UNESCO World Heritage List . Lake Malawi National Park was first listed in 1984, and the Chongoni Rock Art Area was listed in 2006. Malawi's climate is hot in the low-lying areas in the south of the country and temperate in the northern highlands. The altitude moderates what would otherwise be an equatorial climate. Between November and April, the temperature is warm with equatorial rains and thunderstorms, with

4488-810: The United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU). Malawi is one of the world's least-developed countries . The economy is heavily based on agriculture , and it has a largely rural and growing population. Key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008. Malawi has

4620-483: The Universities' Mission to Central Africa set up a missionary station at Magomero , near Zomba in the highlands. After Mackenzie died in 1863, the mission was withdrawn. Later in the 19th century more British missions and plantations were established, expanding British influence in the highlands. In 1891 Harry Johnston was appointed Commissioner and Consul General to the British Central Africa Protectorate ,

4752-676: The World Bank , the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and other countries. Malawi was ranked the 119th safest investment destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Country Risk rankings. The Malawian government faces challenges in developing a market economy, improving environmental protection, dealing with the rapidly growing HIV/AIDS problem, improving the education system, and satisfying its foreign donors to become financially independent. In December 2000,

4884-500: The worldwide economic depression of the early 1930s. The 1938 Bell Report noted that many estate owners had little need of tenants’ labour and could not pay them wages or purchase the crops they produced. Some of these tenants were obliged to find work outside their estate to pay their rents in cash. During the Second World War and after, the Nyasaland government faced increasing African opposition. Many grievances came from

5016-499: The 16th century. In 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate , and it was renamed Nyasaland in 1907. In 1964, Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda , and was renamed Malawi . Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Banda

5148-656: The Africans of Nyasaland to promote local interests to the British government. In 1953, Britain linked Nyasaland with Northern and Southern Rhodesia in what was the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , often called the Central African Federation (CAF), for mainly political reasons. Even though the Federation was semi-independent, the linking provoked opposition from African nationalists, and

5280-539: The British Secretary of State for the Colonies for the benefit of those African communities. The area of Native Trust Land was about 2.5 million acres. From 1936, Native Authorities appointed under the policy of Indirect Rule from among traditional chiefs and appointed headmen were given powers to allocate Trust Land to their communities in accordance with customary law. John Chilembwe (1871–1915)

5412-426: The British government that its African colonies were moving towards self-government at a faster pace than previously envisaged, so the condition of African residents on the estates could no longer be ignored. African political consciousness was growing and unused and under-used estate land could no longer be justified by an appeal to dubious 19th century claims. The increasing disturbances made resolution more urgent, and

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5544-472: The Crown to alienate as it saw fit. Johnston also accepted that the treaties and agreements made before the start of the protectorate might be evidence of sales of land. Even though he accepted that the land belonged to its African communities, not the chiefs, Johnston proposed the legal fiction that the people had given their chiefs the right to sell it. This interpretation validated the chiefs’ sales and grants of unused land to Europeans. He also claimed that he

5676-478: The IMF stopped aid disbursements due to corruption concerns, and many individual donors followed, resulting in an almost 80% drop in Malawi's development budget. However, in 2005, Malawi was the recipient of over US$ 575 million in aid. Many analysts believe that economic progress for Malawi depends on its ability to control population growth. A 2009 purchase of a private presidential jet followed almost immediately by

5808-771: The Land Planning Committee) should be “protected against indiscriminate settlement and unorganised cultivation” (in Abraham's words). The main problem was that those areas where the Native Trust Land was most overcrowded were also those where there was the least available under-used land on estates. If the most under-utilised estate land were acquired for resettlement, it would involve the significant population movement of those residents leaving estates. The Land Planning Committee advocated compulsory resettlement to distant areas if necessary. Another problem

5940-551: The Malawi Freedom Movement of Orton Chirwa and the Socialist League of Malawi , were founded in exile. Malawi's economy, while Banda was president, was often cited as an example of how a poor, landlocked, and heavily populated country deficient in mineral resources could achieve progress in both agriculture and industrial development. Under pressure for increased political freedom , Banda agreed to

6072-613: The Malawian economy but have also drawn significant inflows of aid from other countries. Donors to Malawi include the United States, Canada, and Germany, as well as international institutions such as the World Bank , the International Monetary Fund , the European Union , the African Development Bank , and UN organizations. Malawi is a member of several international organizations, including the Commonwealth ,

6204-549: The NAC gained popular support. An influential opponent of the CAF was Hastings Banda , a European-trained doctor working in Ghana who was persuaded to return to Nyasaland in 1958 to assist the nationalist cause. Banda was elected president of the NAC and worked to mobilize nationalist sentiment before being jailed by colonial authorities in 1959. He was released in 1960 and asked to help draft

6336-466: The Nyasaland government agreed to purchase almost 36,470 acres in Cholo District with 24,600 residents from the British Central Africa Company for resettlement. Before this, the company had owned 74,262 acres with 36,400 residents. The company retained 38,143 acres, but of the 11,800 residents, 3,240 were moved onto Crown lands . It was only in 1962, when independence was clearly in prospect, that

6468-472: The Nyasaland government should acquire blocks of estate land of a sufficient size to accommodate those Africans who were resident on the estate. The Ormsby-Gore East African Commission of 1924 added that it was anomalous that the Nyasaland government was forcing African residents on estates in southern Nyasaland to accept obligations imposed by landowners which were not specified in the land titles. Similar claims to impose these additional burdens were not upheld by

6600-410: The Shire Highlands, which contained many existing estates. The commission also estimated that the African population of Nyasaland would double by 1950, but it considered that the very low estimate that 3.2 million acres of cultivable land, with appropriate pasturage, would be sufficient to feed this anticipated future population. However, in 1924 the governor, Sir Charles Bowring, reported that Nyasaland

6732-437: The Shire Highlands. The committee did not go as far as Abrahams proposed, and its guiding principle was that land should be put to the best use possible, whether as working estates or African farmland. It recommended that government should only re-acquire land which was either undeveloped or occupied by large numbers of African residents or tenants. On the other hand, land capable of future “European development” (the phrase used by

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6864-680: The UDF party winning 70% of the available seats. There was scheduled to be a second round of constitutionally mandated local elections in May 2005, but these were cancelled by the government. In February 2005, President Mutharika split with the United Democratic Front and began his own party, the Democratic Progressive Party , which had attracted reform-minded officials from other parties and won by-elections across

6996-735: The UN and some of its child agencies, the IMF, the World Bank, the African Union , and the World Health Organization . The country was the first in southern Africa to receive peacekeeping training under the African Crisis Response Initiative . Malawi is the 79th most peaceful country in the world (of 163), according to the 2024 Global Peace Index . As of 2017 , international observers noted issues in several human rights areas. Excessive force

7128-509: The US, and China. In 2016, Malawi was hit by a drought, and in January 2017, the country reported an outbreak of armyworms around Zomba. The moth is capable of wiping out entire fields of corn, the staple grain of residents. On 14 January 2017, the agriculture minister George Chaponda reported that 2,000 hectares of crop had been destroyed, having spread to nine of twenty-eight districts. Shire Highlands The Shire Highlands are

7260-410: The United States followed suit, freezing a US$ 350 million grant, citing concerns regarding the government's suppression and intimidation of demonstrators and civic groups, as well as restriction of the press and police violence. Malawi has been seen as a haven for refugees from other African countries, including Mozambique and Rwanda , since 1985. These influxes of refugees have placed a strain on

7392-476: The Zomba plateau is made up of syenite and quartz syenite, which intruded into the much older Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks that compose much of the highlands. The central portion includes numerous hills and mountains, including Chiradzulu (1774 m), Ndirande (1613 m), Soche (1533 m), and Michiru (1474 m). Thyolo Mountain lies at the southern end of the highlands. Yao are the predominant people of

7524-475: The ability to select tenants and workers, evicting those they did not want, without reference to any customs that restricted these objectives. Africans wanted to occupy estate land under the same conditions as Trust Land: rent-free, without any obligation to provide labour or sell crops to the estate owner, and following traditional customs. Abrahams saw these views as irreconcilable and considered that African residents in estates should be “emancipated”, free to leave

7656-401: The acquisition of land for re-settlement. Its original official members co-opted six representatives of the estate owners and six missionaries, but no Africans, although it took evidence from several chiefs. The committee realised the difficulty of its task, and considered it would be expensive and time-consuming to complete. However, it was pressed to achieve results and decided to concentrate on

7788-615: The best arable lands in the Shire Highlands , the most densely populated part of the country. Customary law had little legal status in the early colonial period, as in 1902 the Parliament of the United Kingdom provided that English Law would generally apply in the British Central Africa Protectorate, and that the Crown had sovereignty over all of the land in the protectorate. Landowners had

7920-464: The categories “Native” or “African” to determine legal rights. The Land Commission of 1920 sought to address increasing African landlessness and recommended strict observance of the “non-disturbance” clauses contained in the Certificates of Claim. However, these clauses were largely ineffective, because landowners routinely ignored them and because the practice of shifting cultivation meant that

8052-502: The chairmanship of the Provincial Commissioner. However, the resident's land could be taken away if not put to good use. There were other details which provided for controlled rent, graduated rent for females, the right of unmarried women who were daughters of a resident to permanent residence (a resident's son, however, could only remain on an estate after reaching the age of eighteen with the owner's permission) and for

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8184-424: The chiefs who sold the land and had received a fair price, but his estimates of land value were very low, from a halfpenny an acre up to a maximum of threepence an acre. The existing African villages and farms were exempted from these sales, and the villagers could retain their homes and fields under “non-disturbance” clauses in most Certificates of Claim. When the legality of the Certificates of Claim system

8316-505: The colonial Agricultural Department and the eviction of former estate tenants. African smallholders widely opposed the imposition of rules designed to limit soil erosion which involved them in considerable extra labour, so the department decided to use compulsion to enforce these rules. In 1942, many hundreds of African tenants were served with notices to quit in 1943. In the Blantyre District hundreds refused to leave since there

8448-403: The company accepted the need to sell its surplus land, retaining only its most profitable assets. While the 1950s saw the beginnings of the policy of actually re-acquiring lands for African occupation, it was only in the 1960s that the programme was completed and schemes for the allocation of land acquired to be formulated. In the 1940s aggrieved African residents objected to having to pay rent to

8580-505: The company tried to sell its land to a private buyer, but the sale fell through. Some of the A L Bruce Estates land was sold to private buyers, but the government's need for land for re-settlement after the 1949 famine caused it to restart negotiations with the company in 1952. Around 75,000 acres was bought by the government, much of which was of poor quality. In 1948, the British Central Africa Company Ltd

8712-552: The conditions of tenants on European-owned estates. The outbreak and effects of the First World War was the key factor in moving him from vocal criticism to planning an uprising, which he believed would achieve the deliverance of his people. He planned to attack government centres and European estates in the Shire Highlands in January 1915. The plan failed almost completely; Chilembwe was killed and many of his followers were executed after summary trials under Martial law , but

8844-689: The continental average, it was lower than the regional average for southern Africa. Its highest scores were for safety and rule of law, and its lowest scores were for sustainable economic opportunity, with a ranking of 47th on the continent for educational opportunities. Malawi's governance score had improved between 2000 and 2011. Malawi held elections in May 2019, with President Peter Mutharika winning re-election over challengers Lazarus Chakwera, Atupele Muluzi, and Saulos Chilima. In 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court annulled President Peter Mutharika's narrow election victory last year because of widespread fraud and irregularities. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won

8976-652: The country from north to south, and to the east of the valley lies Lake Malawi (also called Lake Nyasa ), making up over three-quarters of Malawi's eastern boundary. Lake Malawi is sometimes called the Calendar Lake as it is about 365 miles (587 km) long and 52 miles (84 km) wide. The Shire River flows from the south end of the lake and joins the Zambezi River 400 kilometres (250 mi) farther south in Mozambique . The surface of Lake Malawi

9108-577: The country has continued to increase since then, despite concerns regarding the treatment of workers by Chinese companies and competition of Chinese business with local companies. In 2011, a document was released in which the British ambassador to Malawi criticised President Mutharika. Mutharika expelled the ambassador from Malawi, and in July 2011, the UK announced that it was suspending all budgetary aid because of Mutharika's lack of response to criticisms of his government and economic mismanagement. On 26 July 2011,

9240-474: The country in 2006. In 2008, President Mutharika had implemented reforms to address the country's major corruption problem, with at least five senior UDF party members facing criminal charges. In 2012, Malawi was ranked 7th of all countries in sub-Saharan Africa in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance , an index that measures several variables. Although the country's governance score was higher than

9372-426: The country through its resemblance to varieties of cannabis used as a recreational drug and the difficulty in distinguishing between the two types. The cultivation of Malawian cannabis, known as Malawi Gold , as a drug has increased significantly. Malawi is known for growing "the best and finest" cannabis in the world for recreational drug use , according to a recent World Bank report, and cultivation and sales of

9504-673: The country's president, is causing Malawi to become a net exporter of food to nearby countries. The FISP ended with President Mutharika's death. In 2020, the programme was replaced with the Affordable Inputs Program (AIP), which extends the subsidy on maize seed and fertiliser to sorghum and rice seed. The main agricultural products of Malawi include tobacco , sugarcane , cotton , tea , corn , potatoes, sorghum, cattle, and goats. The main industries are tobacco, tea, and sugar processing, sawmill products, cement, and consumer goods . The industrial production growth rate

9636-615: The crop may contribute to corruption within the police force. Other exported goods are cotton, peanuts, wood products, and apparel . The main destination locations for the country's exports are South Africa, Germany, Egypt, Zimbabwe, the United States, Russia, and the Netherlands. Malawi currently imports an estimated US$ 1.625 billion in goods per year, with the main commodities being food, petroleum products, consumer goods, and transportation equipment. The main countries that Malawi imports from are South Africa, India, Zambia, Tanzania,

9768-411: The descendants of his tenants.” Abrahams reached the conclusion that the only solution was to end the status of resident native, leaving him free to quit the estate or to stay there on terms satisfactory both to himself and the landlord, substituting contractual rights for statutory ones. The 1948 Land Planning Committee of senior civil servants did not wholly agree with Abraham's recommendations, holding

9900-583: The disabled, youth, and women. The Malawi Congress Party is the ruling party together with several other parties in the Tonse Alliance led by Lazarus Chakwera while the Democratic Progressive Party is the main opposition party. Suffrage is universal at 18 years of age, and the central government budget for 2021/2022 is $ 2.4 billion from $ 2.8 billion for the 2020/2021 financial year. The independent judicial branch

10032-539: The east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 21,240,689 (as of 2024). Malawi's capital and largest city is Lilongwe . Its second-largest is Blantyre , its third-largest is Mzuzu , and its fourth-largest is Zomba , the former capital. The part of Africa now known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by migrating Bantu groups. They formed various kingdoms such as Maravi kingdom and Nkhamanga Kingdom , among others that flourished from

10164-421: The elections (coming third) and was replaced by Peter Mutharika , the brother of ex-President Mutharika. In the 2019 Malawian general election president Peter Mutharika was narrowly re-elected. In February 2020 Malawi Constitutional Court overturned the result because of irregularities and widespread fraud. In May 2020 Malawi Supreme Court upheld the decision and announced a new election was held on July 2. This

10296-409: The estate and be resettled on Trust Land or to stay on terms negotiated with the owner, not imposed by legislation. This could not be done while much Native Trust Land was overcrowded, so he suggested that the unused and under-used estate land should be acquired for the re-settlement of those leaving estates and also to accommodate some of the excess population already on Trust Land. Abrahams thought that

10428-472: The estate owners, as their counterparts on African Trust Lands lived rent free. They complained of a reduction in the size of their gardens and of the difficulties experienced by their children in building their own huts and starting new gardens. On the other hand, the planters in the Cholo Tea Association complained of shortages of labour, which they claimed was due to the increase of income in

10560-425: The government has failed to address, including high service costs and poor infrastructure for power, water, and telecommunications. As of 2017 , it was estimated that Malawi had a purchasing power parity (PPP) of $ 22.42 billion, with a per capita GDP of $ 1200, and inflation estimated at 12.2% in 2017. Agriculture accounts for 35% of GDP, industry for 19%, and services for the remaining 46%. Malawi has one of

10692-768: The government is seen as a major issue, despite the Malawi Anti-Corruption Bureau's (ACB) attempts to reduce it. Corruption within security forces is also an issue. Malawi had one of the highest rates of child marriage in the world. In 2015, Malawi raised the legal age for marriage from 15 to 18. Societal issues found included violence against women , human trafficking , and child labour . Other issues that have been raised are lack of adequate legal protection of women from sexual abuse and harassment, very high maternal mortality rate, and abuse related to accusations of witchcraft . As of 2010 , homosexuality has been illegal in Malawi. In one 2010 case,

10824-605: The growing by Africans of cash crops only by contract with the owner. Malawi Malawi ( / m ə ˈ l ɑː w i / ; lit.   ' flames ' in Chichewa and Chitumbuka ), officially the Republic of Malawi and formerly known as Nyasaland , is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa . It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to

10956-790: The highlands between 1903 and 1907, from Blantyre in the highlands to the river port of Chiromo , on the Shire River where it meets the Ruo . The railway was later extended north from Blantyre to Salima in central Malawi, south from Chiromo to Port Herald (present day Nsanje ) in 1908, and from Port Herald to the Mozambican river port of Chindio on the Zambezi River in 1914. From the late 19th century, tobacco, cotton, and coffee were grown for export. Coffee growing declined in importance by 1900, displaced by drought and competition with Brazilian coffee growers. Tea plantations were established in

11088-626: The idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged. The first name given to what is known now as Malawi was Nyasaland , a combination of the Lomwe word nyasa "lake" and the English word "land". The combined name was formed by David Livingstone , a Scottish explorer and missionary who led the Zambezi Expedition through the area in the mid-1800s. The current name Malawi , meaning "flames" in Chichewa and Chitumbuka ,

11220-405: The international community increases pressure to limit tobacco production. Malawi's dependence on tobacco is growing, with the product jumping from 53% to 70% of export revenues between 2007 and 2008. The country also relies heavily on tea, sugar, and coffee, with these three plus tobacco making up more than 90% of Malawi's export revenue. Due to a rise in costs and a decline in sales prices, Malawi

11352-508: The land held by the British Central Africa Company , most of which was had never been developed. The committee's official members expected that the major estate owners, whose representatives they had co-opted, would be willing to sell parts of their land voluntarily. However, both A L Bruce Estates Ltd and particularly the British Central Africa Company Ltd proved very reluctant to comply. The committee considered that

11484-462: The land occupied by tenants had changed since the time the certificate were issued. Another aim of the 1920 Land Commission was to promote European agriculture by curbing the growing of economic crops by Africans where this competed with Europeans. It also aimed to restrict the amount of land reserved for those Africans living outside the estates to only as much as was currently sufficient for their use, with some allowance for future needs. The remainder

11616-471: The legislature. The legislative branch consists of a unicameral National Assembly of 193 members who are elected every five years, and although the Malawian constitution provides for a Senate of 80 seats, one does not exist in practice. If created, the Senate would provide representation for traditional leaders and a variety of geographic districts, as well as special interest groups, including

11748-448: The local management of the British Central Africa Company did not realise how discontented its tenants were, nor that it needed to sell much of its estates, but it did not wish to acquire the company's land compulsorily. The programme accelerated after 1951, and within six years the government had re-acquired most of the land it had targeted by negotiated purchase. By June 1954, 350,000 acres had been re-acquired leaving only 3.7% of land in

11880-485: The lowest per capita incomes in the world, although economic growth was estimated at 9.7% in 2008 and strong growth is predicted by the International Monetary Fund for 2009. The poverty rate in Malawi is decreasing through the work of the government and supporting organisations, with people living under the poverty line decreasing from 54% in 1990 to 40% in 2006, and the percentage of "ultra-poor" decreasing from 24% in 1990 to 15% in 2007. In January 2015, southern Malawi

12012-523: The majority of estate residents would choose to leave, so the owners could then develop the remaining largely unoccupied parts of their estates. Between Abrahams’ visit to Nyasaland and the publication of his report, Edmund Richards, the governor from 1942 to 1947, strongly advocated to the Colonial Office that the Nyasaland government should purchase the Magomero estate of A L Bruce Estates ,

12144-585: The middle of the 19th century, Yao people migrated eastwards from the northern Mozambican coast, and established chiefdoms in the highlands – Malemia ( Domasi ), Mlumbe (Zomba), Kawinga (Chikala), Mpama ( Chiradzulu ), and Kapeni and Somba (in Blantyre District). The Yao chiefs were involved in the trade of ivory and slaves, centered on the Mozambican port of Quelimane . With encouragement and assistance from David Livingstone during his second Zambesi expedition , in 1861 Bishop Charles Mackenzie of

12276-434: The military. By 1700, however, the empire had broken up into areas controlled by many individual ethnic groups. The Indian Ocean slave trade reached its height in the mid-1800s, when approximately 20,000 people per year were believed to have been enslaved and transported from Nkhotakota to Kilwa where they were sold. Missionary and explorer David Livingstone reached Lake Malawi (then Lake Nyasa ) in 1859 and identified

12408-436: The north. To the south of Lake Malawi lies the Shire Highlands , gently rolling land at approximately 914 metres (3,000 ft) above sea level. In this area, the Zomba and Mulanje mountain peaks rise to respective heights of 2,134 and 3,048 metres (7,000 and 10,000 ft). Malawi's capital is Lilongwe , and its commercial centre is Blantyre , with a population of over 500,000 people. Malawi has two sites listed on

12540-408: The northern highlands, and Chewa people in the center and south. The Lomwe people also live in the highlands. Blantyre is the largest city in the highlands. Zomba is the second-largest, and served as the capital of Nyasaland and independent Malawi until 1975. Thyolo is a center of tea production. Archeological evidence shows the highlands have been populated for thousands of years. In

12672-537: The presence of all resident Africans on estates was to be legalised; a register was to be kept of all resident Africans and every resident was entitled to that extent of cultivable land already under his crops at the time of the implementation of the Ordinance in 1952. The quinquennial period of evictions was abolished, and future evictions could only take place if approved by an Arbitration Board consisting of three representatives of estate owners and three Africans, under

12804-443: The protectorate in estates. At independence in 1964, this had been reduced to less than 2% per cent. The Abrahams report stated that, in 1946, 173,000 Africans in 49,000 families were resident on estates. Land acquisition and re-settlement reduced this to 9,000 families by 1962, most of which had opted to stay as workers or tenants on the estates when offered re-settlement, often at some distance from their estate. A L Bruce Estates Ltd

12936-441: The resolution of the land issue should have been a policy priority for the Nyasaland and British governments. However, neither Kittermaster, who was governor from 1934 to 1939, nor Mackenzie-Kennedy, his successor until 1942, was able to take any significant action. Their successor, Richards, supported Abraham's suggestions but left Nyasaland in early 1947, so it was left to Colby to give effect to Abraham's proposals. The first problem

13068-581: The richest lake fish faunas in the world , being the home for some 200 mammals, 650 birds, 30+ mollusk, and 5,500+ plant species. Seven terrestrial ecoregions lie within Malawi's borders: Central Zambezian miombo woodlands , Eastern miombo woodlands , Southern miombo woodlands , Zambezian and mopane woodlands , Zambezian flooded grasslands , South Malawi montane forest-grassland mosaic , and Southern Rift montane forest-grassland mosaic . There are five national parks , four wildlife and game reserves and two other protected areas in Malawi. The country had

13200-402: The same Nyasaland government in northern Nyasaland, and such claims were not even recognised by government of Northern Rhodesia. The main causes of discontent among tenants on private estates were their lack of security of tenure and the demands made on them to provide significant amounts labour in lieu of rent under the system known as thangata to which they were subject. The most urgent problem

13332-543: The storms reaching their peak severity in late March. After March, the rainfall rapidly diminishes, and from May to September, wet mists float from the highlands into the plateaus, with almost no rainfall during these months. Animal life indigenous to Malawi includes mammals such as elephants, hippos, antelopes, buffaloes, big cats, monkeys, rhinos, and bats; a great variety of birds , including birds of prey, parrots, and falcons; waterfowl and large waders; and owls and songbirds. Lake Malawi has been described as having one of

13464-609: The tenants on European-owned estates who increasingly resented the imposition of thangata, originally a form of labour rent but now often a form of sharecropping. Not only was thangata itself hated, but several estate managers increased tensions by denying the sons-in-law of existing tenants the right to settle in accordance with former practice, delaying payment of wages, demanding that tenants grow cash crops rather than food or by large-scale evictions. Smallholders living on Native Trust Land often suffered overcrowding, made worse by new methods of cultivation and soil conservation advocated by

13596-585: The territories in the British sphere of influence north of the Zambezi River. Johnston set up a headquarters at Zomba , and between 1891 and 1895 subordinated the Yao chiefs to British rule, often by force. Johnston abolished the slave trade, and allowed British missionaries and settlers to lay claim to large tracts of the highlands. By 1894, Johnston had granted 'certificates of claim' to a handful of British settlers, missionaries, and private companies, granting them freehold property rights to 3776 km , or over half

13728-414: The total area of the highlands. In addition to private lands, Johnston established public or crown lands that included forest reserves, and African trust lands, held by the colonial state for customary use by the native people. Public lands and trust lands were later opened up to leaseholds of up to 99 years, effectively privatizing some of them. The Shire Highlands Railway Company built a railway across

13860-614: The total land area of the Protectorate. This included 2.7 million acres, over 1 million hectares, in the North Nyasa District, which the British South Africa Company had acquired because of its mineral potential, and very little of which was ever turned into plantations or estates. Most of the remaining alienated land, some 867,000 acres, or over 350,000 hectares of estates, included much of

13992-582: The tribes had established several kingdoms such as the Maravi that reached from north of what is now Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River and from Lake Malawi to the Luangwa River in what is now Zambia and the Nkhamanga. Soon after 1600, with the area mostly united under one native ruler, native tribesmen began encountering, trading with and making alliances with Portuguese traders and members of

14124-549: The uprising was a severe blow to the colonial authorities. For many years after the initial shock of the Chilembwe uprising, both the Nyasaland and British governments did little to deal with the problem of land grievances, despite recognising that this problem existed. Generally, the supposed needs of the European estate owners were given priority and legislation in 1917, 1928 and 1952 was overtly race-based, as it involved using

14256-414: The view that 'African and European enterprise in Nyasaland are complementary and inter-dependent; neither can progress without the goodwill of the other; both must be prepared to co-operate for their mutual benefit and progress'. Under this two-fold policy land could still, under certain conditions, be alienated to non-Africans. The main provisions of the Africans on Private Estates Ordinance, 1952 were that

14388-404: The villages through increased wages, financial assistance from relatives working abroad and the proceeds from the sale of cash crops. There was a conflict of interests: “. . . natives feel they have a strong customary right to settle their families in their home village, while on the other hand the landlord would do anything to contest that he was legally obliged to find accommodation on his land for

14520-482: The west and south by the valley of the Shire River , an extension of the African Rift Valley . The Phalombe Plain slopes gently towards Lake Chilwa to the northeast, and separates the highlands from the taller Mulanje Massif to the east. Streams originating in the highlands drain west, south, and southeast towards the Shire River, or northeast into the closed basin of Lake Chilwa. The highlands have

14652-552: The whole of present-day Malawi as the British Central Africa Protectorate . In 1907, the protectorate was renamed Nyasaland , a name it retained for the remainder of its time under British rule. In an example of what is sometimes called the "Thin White Line" of colonial authority in Africa, the colonial government of Nyasaland was formed in 1891. The administrators were given a budget of £10,000 (1891 nominal value) per year, which

14784-570: Was elected . Although the political environment was described as "challenging", it was stated in 2009 that a multi-party system still existed in Malawi. Multiparty parliamentary and presidential elections were held for the fourth time in Malawi in May 2009, and President Mutharika was successfully re-elected, despite charges of election fraud from his rival. President Mutharika was seen by some as increasingly autocratic and dismissive of human rights, and in July 2011 protests over high costs of living, devolving foreign relations, poor governance and

14916-578: Was a Baptist minister, who returned to Nyasaland after education at the Virginia Theological Seminary and College, (now Virginia University of Lynchburg ) in 1900 and founded the Providence Industrial Mission . Initially, Chilembwe avoided direct criticism of the colonial authorities, but after 1913 he had become more politically militant and openly criticised the government over African land rights and

15048-570: Was because the system set up following the 1928 Natives on Private Estates Ordinance neither provided the owners with a reliable pool of labour nor enabled them to reduce the numbers living on their estates. Many African tenants, in Abrahams’ view, failed to understand their obligations or the limits on their legal rights. Many Africans living on Native Trust Land felt strong resentment at the large areas of under-used estate land. European owners wanted rent in cash, kind or labour at their discretion and

15180-548: Was challenged in 1903 on the basis that the agreements made by the chiefs breached the rights of their community members, the Appeals Court upheld their validity. The court did, however, rule that many aspects of the agreements made by the chiefs were unfair and one-sided, favouring the European parties. In total, 59 Certificates of Claim to land rights were registered, mostly between 1892 and 1894, covering an area of 3.7 million acres, almost 1.5 million hectares or 15% of

15312-502: Was chosen by the first president of Malawi , Kamuzu Banda , after the country achieved its independence from Great Britain in 1964. The area of Africa now known as Malawi had a very small population of hunter-gatherers before waves of Bantu peoples began emigrating from the north around the 10th century CE. Although most of the Bantu peoples continued south, some remained and founded ethnic groups based on common ancestry. By 1500,

15444-590: Was declared President for life in 1971. Independence were characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship. After the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda lost the 1994 general election . Today, Malawi has a democratic , multi-party republic headed by an elected president. According to the 2024 V-Dem Democracy indices , Malawi is ranked 74th electoral democracy worldwide and 11th electoral democracy in Africa . The country maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations , including

15576-488: Was enough to employ ten European civilians, two military officers, seventy Punjabi Sikhs and eighty-five Zanzibar porters . These few employees were then expected to administer and police a territory of around 94,000 square kilometres with between one and two million people. That same year, slavery came to its complete cessation. In 1944, the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC) was formed by

15708-467: Was entitled to investigate whether these sales were valid and, if they were, to issue Certificates of Claim (in effect a registration of freehold title over the land) to the new owners. Johnston stated that a review of land claims was necessary because the proclamation of the protectorate had been followed by a wholesale land grab, with huge areas of land bought for trivial sums and many claims overlapping or requiring adjustment. He sought confirmation that

15840-624: Was hit by floods. These floods affected more than a million people across the country, including 336,000 who were displaced, according to UNICEF . Over 100 people were killed, and an estimated 64,000 hectares of cropland were washed away. The economy of Malawi is predominantly agricultural. Over 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming, even though agriculture only contributed to 27% of GDP in 2013. The services sector accounts for more than half of GDP (54%), compared to 11% for manufacturing and 8% for other industries, including natural uranium mining. Malawi invests more in agriculture (as

15972-481: Was kept secret, including an elaborate flight with the body to South Africa, where the ambulance drivers refused to move the body, saying they were not licensed to move a corpse. After the South African government threatened to reveal the information, the presidential title was taken over by Vice-President Joyce Banda (no relation to Hastings Banda). In the 2014 Malawian general election , Joyce Banda lost

16104-409: Was no other land for them. Two years later the same difficulty arose in the densely populated Cholo District, two-thirds of whose land constituted private estates. Eviction notices served on 1,250 tenants were resisted, and the government was forced to intervene to reduce the figure of those actually removed to one-tenth of the number served with notices. After the Second World War, it became clearer to

16236-458: Was seen to be used by police forces and security forces with impunity, mob violence was occasionally seen, and prison conditions continued to be harsh and sometimes life-threatening. However, the government was seen to make some effort to prosecute security forces who used excessive force. Other legal issues included limits on free speech and freedom of the press , lengthy pretrial detentions, and arbitrary arrests and detentions. Corruption within

16368-422: Was that tenants did not have security of tenure rather than the levels of labour services or rent they faced. There was also a sense of grievance that Europeans were holding large tracts of undeveloped land while Africans were suffering land shortages. The British government was not prepared to support Bowring's proposal or deal with the anomaly noted by Ormsby-Gore. Instead, legislation passed in Nyasaland in 1928,

16500-427: Was that these were of a general nature and not based on any detailed surveys of the estates. The second was that Colby believed that compulsory purchase would alienate resident Europeans, deter future European investment and increase racial tensions. As a result of the Abrahams report, the Nyasaland government set up a Land Planning Committee of civil servants in 1947 to advise on implementing its proposals and deal with

16632-418: Was that, if parts of smaller estates were earmarked for resettlement, the remaining parts might not be economically viable: this meant that the whole estate would have to be bought. This difficulty had not been foreseen by Abrahams. The committee was conscious of the political repercussions that might arise if African expectations were not met. The land it thought should be acquired included about two-thirds of

16764-481: Was the first time an election in the country was legally challenged. Opposition leader Lazarus Chakwera won the 2020 Malawian presidential election and he was sworn in as the new president of Malawi. Malawi is a unitary presidential republic under the leadership of President Lazarus Chakwera . The current constitution was put into place on 18 May 1995. The branches of the government consist of executive , legislative , and judicial . The executive includes

16896-456: Was to become available to form small to medium size European plantations. Even though large areas of the original European estates were underdeveloped or completely unused, their owners were unwilling to sell surplus land to new European farmers except for unrealistically high prices, so the commission looked to 700,000 acres of Crown land that it considered was potentially available to create future estates for these expected incomers, mainly outside

17028-429: Was under-capitalised, but before the 1940s it had refused to sell off any of its land to raise new funds. However, in 1945, the company announced it wished to sell its main estate, and the governor felt it was necessary to negotiate to buy it, even though it had been badly managed and deforested. Bruce Estates wanted a price sufficient to wipe out all its past losses since 1925, but this was considered excessive, and in 1947

17160-627: Was unsuitable for settlement by large numbers of Europeans. From then on, the dominant European voices in Nyasaland were those of its colonial civil servants, unlike in the Rhodesias, where the permanent settlers were predominant. This led to the Colonial Office rejecting the Land Commission's report to the extent it promoted further European settlement. To prevent large-scale evictions from private estates, Bowring also suggested that

17292-468: Was unsuitable to be converted into estates and that there were few new European settlers and consequently little demand from new estates. The needs of African communities were given greater prominence and any further conversion of Crown Land to freehold was prohibited. In addition, from 1916, governors of Nyasaland had been able to reserve areas of Crown Land for the African people inhabiting it. These areas were termed “Native Trust Land”, to be held in trust by

17424-565: Was unwilling to sell the better parts of its land to the government. However, it was prepared to sell inferior land, and in 1948 the government bought freehold land from the company in the Chingale area in the western part of Zomba District to convert it into land held by customary tenure and resettle Africans evacuated from other estates in the Shire valley and highlands on it. The Chingale resettlement scheme took place from 1948 to 1954. Following

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