An affair is a relationship typically between two people, one or both of whom are either married or in a long-term relationship with someone else. The affair can be solely sexual or solely physical or solely emotional – or a combination of these. People who involve themselves in affairs do so out of the need for just sex, an intimate relationship , passionate attachment or a combination, which is often referred to as a "soul tie".
67-550: An affair is a sexual relationship, romantic friendship, or passionate attachment between two people without the attached person's significant other knowing. Affair may also refer to: Affair Relationships are considered to be contracts. They may be a formal one like marriage – consisting of both a verbal and written contract, or an informal one – consisting of only verbal contract. Because most affairs are clandestine in nature, an affair breaks those contracts. Clandestine affairs can commonly cause feelings of betrayal to
134-408: A community or society " More simply put, if group members do not follow a norm, they become tagged as a deviant. In the sociological literature , this can often lead to them being considered outcasts of society . Yet, deviant behavior amongst children is somewhat expected. Except the idea of this deviance manifesting as a criminal action, the social tolerance given in the example of the child
201-451: A logic of appropriateness and logic of consequences ; the former entails that actors follow norms because it is socially appropriate, and the latter entails that actors follow norms because of cost-benefit calculations. Three stages have been identified in the life cycle of a norm: (1) Norm emergence – norm entrepreneurs seek to persuade others of the desirability and appropriateness of certain behaviors; (2) Norm cascade – when
268-411: A romantic friendship . Extramarital affairs are relationships outside of marriage where an illicit romantic or sexual relationship or a romantic friendship or passionate attachment occurs. An affair can continue in one form or another for years, even as one of the partners in that affair passes through marriage, divorce, and remarriage. This could be considered the primary relationship, with
335-436: A behavior is exhibited, and how much the group approves of that behavior. Although not considered to be formal laws within society, norms still work to promote a great deal of social control . They are statements that regulate conduct. The cultural phenomenon that is the norm is the prescriber of acceptable behavior in specific instances. Ranging in variations depending on culture, race, religion, and geographical location, it
402-668: A boundary that allows for a differentiation between those that belong in a specific social setting and those that do not. For Talcott Parsons of the functionalist school, norms dictate the interactions of people in all social encounters. On the other hand, Karl Marx believed that norms are used to promote the creation of roles in society which allows for people of different levels of social class structure to be able to function properly. Marx claims that this power dynamic creates social order . James Coleman (sociologist) used both micro and macro conditions for his theory. For Coleman, norms start out as goal oriented actions by actors on
469-473: A child who has painted on the walls of her house, if she has never done this before she may immediately seek a reaction from her mother or father. The form of reaction taken by the mother or father will affect whether the behaviour is likely to occur again in the future. If her parent is positive and approving of the behaviour it will likely reoccur (reinforcement) however, if the parent offers an aversive consequence (physical punishment, time-out, anger etc...) then
536-871: A committed intimate relationship. Individuals having affairs with married men or women can be prosecuted for adultery in some jurisdictions and can be sued by the jilted spouses in others, or named as 'co-respondents' in divorce proceedings. As of 2009, eight U.S. states permitted such alienation of affections lawsuits. Affairs with the consent of their significant others may not be considered infidelity or adultery. Extramarital affairs are viewed and treated differently across various cultures and legal systems, reflecting distinct social norms, religious beliefs , and legal frameworks . In some countries, extramarital affairs are strictly condemned and can lead to serious legal or social consequences, while in others they are more socially accepted or legally tolerated. According to classical Islamic jurisprudence , testimony for
603-441: A degree of skill or malicious gaslighting . All these behaviors are more usually called lying . Deception can be defined as the " covert manipulation of perception to alter thoughts, feelings, or beliefs". The presence of deception may indicate the degree to which the deceiver has breached fundamental conditions of fidelity , reciprocal vulnerability , and transparency . Sometimes these are explicit or assumed pre-conditions of
670-478: A descriptive norm as people's perceptions of what is commonly done in specific situations; it signifies what most people do, without assigning judgment. The absence of trash on the ground in a parking lot, for example, transmits the descriptive norm that most people there do not litter . An Injunctive norm, on the other hand, transmits group approval about a particular behavior; it dictates how an individual should behave. Watching another person pick up trash off
737-638: A given identity." In this definition, norms have an "oughtness" quality to them. Michael Hechter and Karl-Dieter Opp define norms as "cultural phenomena that prescribe and proscribe behavior in specific circumstances." Sociologists Christine Horne and Stefanie Mollborn define norms as "group-level evaluations of behavior." This entails that norms are widespread expectations of social approval or disapproval of behavior. Scholars debate whether social norms are individual constructs or collective constructs. Economist and game theorist Peyton Young defines norms as "patterns of behavior that are self-enforcing within
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#1732765575774804-687: A group." He emphasizes that norms are driven by shared expectations: "Everyone conforms, everyone is expected to conform, and everyone wants to conform when they expect everyone else to conform." He characterizes norms as devices that "coordinate people's expectations in interactions that possess multiple equilibria." Concepts such as "conventions", "customs", "morals", "mores", "rules", and "laws" have been characterized as equivalent to norms. Institutions can be considered collections or clusters of multiple norms. Rules and norms are not necessarily distinct phenomena: both are standards of conduct that can have varying levels of specificity and formality. Laws are
871-563: A highly formal version of norms. Laws, rules and norms may be at odds; for example, a law may prohibit something but norms still allow it. Norms are not the equivalent of an aggregation of individual attitudes. Ideas, attitudes and values are not necessarily norms, as these concepts do not necessarily concern behavior and may be held privately. "Prevalent behaviors" and behavioral regularities are not necessarily norms. Instinctual or biological reactions, personal tastes, and personal habits are not necessarily norms. Groups may adopt norms in
938-476: A key component in sustaining social norms. Individuals may also import norms from a previous organization to their new group, which can get adopted over time. Without a clear indication of how to act, people typically rely on their history to determine the best course forward; what was successful before may serve them well again. In a group, individuals may all import different histories or scripts about appropriate behaviors; common experience over time will lead
1005-605: A long-term relationship outside his marriage and fathered a daughter with his mistress. Although the affair was known within political circles, it remained largely undisclosed to the public until after his death, with minimal effect on his political reputation. This reflects a cultural attitude in France—and perhaps in other countries—where extramarital relationships are sometimes viewed as separate from public responsibilities and are less likely to influence political standing. The appearance of computer-mediated communication introduces
1072-428: A new type of communication and consequently a new type of "affair". There are various kinds of computer-mediated communication that differ in some significant aspects: one-to-one or group communication formats, interrelating with anonymous or identified people and communicating in synchronous or asynchronous formats. Online affairs combine features of close and remote relationships. Ben Ze'ef argues that an online affair
1139-410: A norm becomes a part of the group's operational structure and hence more difficult to change. While possible for newcomers to a group to change its norms, it is much more likely that the new individual will adopt the group's norms, values, and perspectives, rather than the other way around. Deviance is defined as " nonconformity to a set of norms that are accepted by a significant number of people in
1206-650: A norm obtains broad acceptance; and (3) Norm internalization – when a norm acquires a "taken-for-granted" quality. Norms are robust to various degrees: some norms are often violated whereas other norms are so deeply internalized that norm violations are infrequent. Evidence for the existence of norms can be detected in the patterns of behavior within groups, as well as the articulation of norms in group discourse. In some societies, individuals often limit their potential due to social norms, while others engage in social movements to challenge and resist these constraints. There are varied definitions of social norms, but there
1273-488: A norm raises its robustness. It has also been posited that norms that exist within broader clusters of distinct but mutually reinforcing norms may be more robust. Jeffrey Checkel argues that there are two common types of explanations for the efficacy of norms: According to Peyton Young, mechanisms that support normative behavior include: Descriptive norms depict what happens, while injunctive norms describe what should happen. Cialdini, Reno, and Kallgren (1990) define
1340-405: A permanent presence, which is absent from face-to-face affairs. People participating in online affairs may be strangers to each other in the sense that they have never actually met each other. However, they are also close to each other since they share intimate information. In online affairs, people try to enjoy the benefits of both close and remote affairs, while avoiding their flaws. People enjoy
1407-422: A person to perform a behavior.When combined with attitude toward behavior, subjective norms shape an individual's intentions. Social influences are conceptualized in terms of the pressure that people perceive from important others to perform, or not to perform, a behavior. Social Psychologist Icek Azjen theorized that subjective norms are determined by the strength of a given normative belief and further weighted by
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#17327655757741474-433: A role in the process of social norm development. Operant conditioning is the process by which behaviours are changed as a function of their consequences. The probability that a behaviour will occur can be increased or decreased depending on the consequences of said behaviour. In the case of social deviance, an individual who has gone against a norm will contact the negative contingencies associated with deviance, this may take
1541-512: A small group of people. He argues that, in a small community or neighborhood, many rules and disputes can be settled without a central governing body simply by the interactions within these communities. In sociology, norms are seen as rules that bind an individual's actions to a specific sanction in one of two forms: a punishment or a reward. Through regulation of behavior, social norms create unique patterns that allow for distinguishing characteristics to be made between social systems. This creates
1608-692: A theoretical currency for understanding variations in group behavioral expectations. A teacher , for example, may more easily forgive a straight-A student for misbehaving —who has past "good credit" saved up—than a repeatedly disruptive student. While past performance can help build idiosyncrasy credits, some group members have a higher balance to start with. Individuals can import idiosyncrasy credits from another group; childhood movie stars , for example, who enroll in college, may experience more leeway in adopting school norms than other incoming freshmen. Finally, leaders or individuals in other high-status positions may begin with more credits and appear to be "above
1675-717: A variety of ways. Some stable and self-reinforcing norms may emerge spontaneously without conscious human design. Peyton Young goes as far as to say that "norms typically evolve without top-down direction... through interactions of individuals rather than by design." Norms may develop informally, emerging gradually as a result of repeated use of discretionary stimuli to control behavior. Not necessarily laws set in writing, informal norms represent generally accepted and widely sanctioned routines that people follow in everyday life. These informal norms, if broken, may not invite formal legal punishments or sanctions, but instead encourage reprimands, warnings, or othering ; incest , for example,
1742-445: Is a unique kind of affair—termed "detached attachment", or just "detachment"—that includes opposing features whose presence in a face-to-face affair would be paradoxical. Like direct, face-to-face affairs, online affairs can be spontaneous and casual and show intensive personal involvement. However, online affairs can also be more of a planned discourse than spontaneous talk; like written letters, online messages can be stored and thus have
1809-597: Is agreement among scholars that norms are: In 1965, Jack P. Gibbs identified three basic normative dimensions that all concepts of norms could be subsumed under: According to Ronald Jepperson, Peter Katzenstein and Alexander Wendt , "norms are collective expectations about proper behavior for a given identity." Wayne Sandholtz argues against this definition, as he writes that shared expectations are an effect of norms, not an intrinsic quality of norms. Sandholtz, Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink define norms instead as "standards of appropriate behavior for actors with
1876-458: Is derived through experience (i.e. social norms are learned through social interaction ). Wearing a suit to a job interview in order to give a great first impression represents a common example of a social norm in the white collar work force . In his work "Order without Law: How Neighbors Settle Disputes", Robert Ellickson studies various interactions between members of neighbourhoods and communities to show how societal norms create order within
1943-405: Is generally thought of as wrong in society, but many jurisdictions do not legally prohibit it. Norms may also be created and advanced through conscious human design by norm entrepreneurs . Norms can arise formally, where groups explicitly outline and implement behavioral expectations. Legal norms typically arise from design. A large number of these norms we follow 'naturally' such as driving on
2010-566: Is no actual victim in these consenting relationships. Social norms can be enforced formally (e.g., through sanctions) or informally (e.g., through body language and non-verbal communication cues). Because individuals often derive physical or psychological resources from group membership, groups are said to control discretionary stimuli ; groups can withhold or give out more resources in response to members' adherence to group norms, effectively controlling member behavior through rewards and operant conditioning. Social psychology research has found
2077-412: Is quickly withdrawn against the criminal. Crime is considered one of the most extreme forms of deviancy according to scholar Clifford R. Shaw . What is considered "normal" is relative to the location of the culture in which the social interaction is taking place. In psychology, an individual who routinely disobeys group norms runs the risk of turning into the " institutionalized deviant ." Similar to
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2144-421: Is the foundation of the terms some know as acceptable as not to injure others, the golden rule, and to keep promises that have been pledged. Without them, there would be a world without consensus, common ground, or restrictions. Even though the law and a state's legislation is not intended to control social norms, society and the law are inherently linked and one dictates the other. This is why it has been said that
2211-465: The ethics of duty which in turn becomes a primary object of moral obligation . Guilt is followed by an action that is questioned after its doing. It can be described as something negative to the self as well as a negative state of feeling. Used in both instances, it is both an unpleasant feeling as well as a form of self-punishment . Using the metaphor of " dirty hands ", it is the staining or tainting of oneself and therefore having to self cleanse away
2278-455: The alienation of that affection. Damages can include both economic and non-economic compensation, such as loss of earnings or emotional distress. In some cases, extramarital affairs among the French elite and politicians have been regarded as private matters and have not significantly impacted their political careers. For instance, François Mitterrand , former president of France , maintained
2345-828: The behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into rules and laws . Social normative influences or social norms, are deemed to be powerful drivers of human behavioural changes and well organized and incorporated by major theories which explain human behaviour . Institutions are composed of multiple norms. Norms are shared social beliefs about behavior; thus, they are distinct from "ideas", "attitudes", and "values", which can be held privately, and which do not necessarily concern behavior. Norms are contingent on context, social group, and historical circumstances. Scholars distinguish between regulative norms (which constrain behavior), constitutive norms (which shape interests), and prescriptive norms (which prescribe what actors ought to do). The effects of norms can be determined by
2412-439: The behaviors of the overarching society or culture may be transmitted and maintained within small subgroups of society. For example, Crandall (1988) noted that certain groups (e.g., cheerleading squads, dance troupes, sports teams, sororities) have a rate of bulimia , a publicly recognized life-threatening disease, that is much higher than society as a whole. Social norms have a way of maintaining order and organizing groups. In
2479-408: The child is less likely to repeat the behaviour in future (punishment). Skinner also states that humans are conditioned from a very young age on how to behave and how to act with those around us considering the outside influences of the society and location one is in. Built to blend into the ambiance and attitude around us, deviance is a frowned upon action. Cialdini , Reno, and Kallgren developed
2546-526: The collective good. However, per relationalism, norms do not necessarily contribute to the collective good; norms may even be harmful to the collective. Some scholars have characterized norms as essentially unstable, thus creating possibilities for norm change. According to Wayne Sandholtz, actors are more likely to persuade others to modify existing norms if they possess power, can reference existing foundational meta-norms, and can reference precedents. Social closeness between actors has been characterized as
2613-640: The crime of adultery must be provided by at least four male Muslim witnesses. Some legal schools allow the substitution of up to three male witnesses with six female witnesses, but at least one witness must be male. The witnesses must be of sound mind, reliable character, and unrelated to the involved parties. This legal system emphasizes the sanctity of marriage and regards infidelity as a severe breach of religious and moral principles. In some countries like Iran , extramarital affairs ( zinā ) are considered serious offenses and can result in punishments such as flogging or, in some cases, stoning , depending on
2680-534: The culture in which they live. As social beings, individuals learn when and where it is appropriate to say certain things, to use certain words, to discuss certain topics or wear certain clothes, and when it is not. Thus, knowledge about cultural norms is important for impressions , which is an individual's regulation of their nonverbal behavior. One also comes to know through experience what types of people he/she can and cannot discuss certain topics with or wear certain types of dress around. Typically, this knowledge
2747-472: The draft penal code, some stoning sentences have continued to be implemented. The most recent reported stoning execution took place in 2007. International human rights organizations have criticized stoning as a punitive measure, describing it as a "grotesque" practice that intensifies the suffering of those sentenced. In North Carolina , an alienation of affection lawsuit is still legally recognized. A spouse who believes their marriage has been damaged due to
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2814-464: The evidence and circumstances. Stoning has historically been used as a punishment for adultery in some cases, particularly for married offenders.In one notable case, Iran carried out the stoning of two men convicted of adultery in Mashhad, as confirmed by judiciary spokesman Ali Reza Jamshidi. Despite a 2002 directive from Iran’s judiciary imposing a moratorium on stoning and its subsequent removal from
2881-464: The field of social psychology, the roles of norms are emphasized—which can guide behavior in a certain situation or environment as "mental representations of appropriate behavior". It has been shown that normative messages can promote pro-social behavior , including decreasing alcohol use, increasing voter turnout, and reducing energy use. According to the psychological definition of social norms' behavioral component, norms have two dimensions: how much
2948-404: The filth. It is a form of reparation that confronts oneself as well as submitting to the possibility of anger and punishment from others. Guilt is a point in both action and feeling that acts as a stimulus for further " honorable " actions. A 2023 study found that non-industrial societies varied in their punishments of norm violations. Punishment varied based on the types of norm violations and
3015-578: The focus theory of normative conduct to describe how individuals implicitly juggle multiple behavioral expectations at once. Expanding on conflicting prior beliefs about whether cultural, situational or personal norms motivate action, the researchers suggested the focus of an individual's attention will dictate what behavioral expectation they follow. There is no clear consensus on how the term norm should be used. Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink distinguish between three types of norms: Finnemore, Sikkink, Jeffrey W. Legro and others have argued that
3082-506: The form of formal or informal rebuke, social isolation or censure, or more concrete punishments such as fines or imprisonment. If one reduces the deviant behavior after receiving a negative consequence, then they have learned via punishment. If they have engaged in a behavior consistent with a social norm after having an aversive stimulus reduced, then they have learned via negative reinforcement. Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases behavior. As an example of this, consider
3149-471: The ground and throw it out, a group member may pick up on the injunctive norm that he ought to not litter. Prescriptive norms are unwritten rules that are understood and followed by society and indicate what we should do. Expressing gratitude or writing a Thank You card when someone gives you a gift represents a prescriptive norm in American culture. Proscriptive norms, in contrast, comprise the other end of
3216-521: The group may begin meetings without him since the individual "is always late." The group generalizes the individual's disobedience and promptly dismisses it, thereby reducing the member's influence and footing in future group disagreements. Group tolerance for deviation varies across membership; not all group members receive the same treatment for norm violations. Individuals may build up a "reserve" of good behavior through conformity , which they can borrow against later. These idiosyncrasy credits provide
3283-399: The group to define as a whole its take on the right action, usually with the integration of several members' schemas. Under the importation paradigm, norm formation occurs subtly and swiftly whereas with formal or informal development of norms may take longer. Groups internalize norms by accepting them as reasonable and proper standards for behavior within the group. Once firmly established,
3350-416: The group will give-up on them as a lost cause ; while the group may not necessarily revoke their membership, they may give them only superficial consideration . If a worker is late to a meeting, for example, violating the office norm of punctuality , a supervisor or other co-worker may wait for the individual to arrive and pull him aside later to ask what happened. If the behavior continues, eventually
3417-442: The highly valued products of close affairs while paying the low cost of remote affairs. As one woman wrote: 'He constantly told me that he can not provide me with what I would want and I would always respond with: "I'm not asking anything from you, but simply enjoy your company"'. Social norm A social norm is a shared standard of acceptable behavior by a group. Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern
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#17327655757743484-438: The interference of a third party can sue for financial damages. The lawsuit claims that the third party’s actions disrupted the marital relationship, leading to the breakdown of affection between the plaintiff and their spouse. North Carolina law does not require proof of extramarital sex; the plaintiff must demonstrate that genuine affection existed within the marriage and that the third party’s wrongful and malicious actions led to
3551-440: The language used in some legislation is controlling and dictating for what should or should not be accepted. For example, the criminalization of familial sexual relations is said to protect those that are vulnerable, however even consenting adults cannot have sexual relationships with their relatives. The language surrounding these laws conveys the message that such acts are supposedly immoral and should be condemned, even though there
3618-475: The marriage secondary to it. Several people claim the reason for an extramarital affair is their unsuccessful marriage where both spouses fail to please each other. This may be serial polygamy or other forms of nonmonogamy . The ability to pursue serial and clandestine extramarital affairs while safeguarding other secrets and conflict of interest inherent in the practice, requires skill in deception and duplicitous negotiation . Even to hide one affair requires
3685-417: The micro level. If the benefits do not outweigh the costs of the action for the actors, then a social norm would emerge. The norm's effectiveness is then determined by its ability to enforce its sanctions against those who would not contribute to the "optimal social order." Heinrich Popitz is convinced that the establishment of social norms, that make the future actions of alter foreseeable for ego, solves
3752-535: The more an individual values group-controlled resources or the more an individual sees group membership as central to his definition of self, the more likely he is to conform. Social norms also allow an individual to assess what behaviors the group deems important to its existence or survival, since they represent a codification of belief; groups generally do not punish members or create norms over actions which they care little about. Norms in every culture create conformity that allows for people to become socialized to
3819-424: The norm, but when a non-sanctioned affair occurs, it is described as infidelity and maybe experienced as adultery , or a betrayal both of trust and integrity , even though to most people it would not be considered illicit. When romantic affairs lack both overt and covert sexual behavior, yet exhibit intense or enduring emotional intimacy, it may also be referred to as an emotional affair , platonic love , or
3886-683: The only one to heavily invest themselves into the affair. A romantic affair, also called an affair of the heart, may refer to a sexual liaison or more emotional relationship between two people who may have sex without expecting a more formal romantic relationship, an affair is by its nature a lie. The term affair may also describe part of an agreement within an open marriage or open relationship , such as swinging , dating , or polyamory , in which some forms of sex with one's non-primary partner(s) are permitted and other forms are not. Participants in open relationships, including unmarried couples and polyamorous families, may consider sanctioned affairs
3953-401: The other person in the primary relationship. Ironically, affairs themselves are also contracted relationships and come with numerous stipulations and rules. An affair is different from a "fling" in that it is usually long-term. The word for the most-likely unmarried partner in an affair is the gender-neutral French "paramour". Affairs are often emotionally lopsided in that paramour will be
4020-465: The problem of contingency ( Niklas Luhmann ). In this way, ego can count on those actions as if they would already have been performed and does not have to wait for their actual execution; social interaction is thus accelerated. Important factors in the standardization of behavior are sanctions and social roles. The probability of these behaviours occurring again is discussed in the theories of B. F. Skinner , who states that operant conditioning plays
4087-539: The right side of the road in the US and on the left side in the UK, or not speeding in order to avoid a ticket. Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink identify three stages in the life cycle of a norm: They argue that several factors may raise the influence of certain norms: Christina Horne and Stefanie Mollborn have identified two broad categories of arguments for the emergence of norms: Per consequentialism, norms contribute to
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#17327655757744154-442: The robustness (or effectiveness) of norms can be measured by factors such as: Christina Horne argues that the robustness of a norm is shaped by the degree of support for the actors who sanction deviant behaviors; she refers to norms regulating how to enforce norms as "metanorms." According to Beth G. Simmons and Hyeran Jo, diversity of support for a norm can be a strong indicator of robustness. They add that institutionalization of
4221-400: The rules" at times. Even their idiosyncrasy credits are not bottomless, however; while held to a more lenient standard than the average member, leaders may still face group rejection if their disobedience becomes too extreme. Deviance also causes multiple emotions one experiences when going against a norm. One of those emotions widely attributed to deviance is guilt . Guilt is connected to
4288-477: The same spectrum; they are similarly society's unwritten rules about what one should not do. These norms can vary between cultures; while kissing someone you just met on the cheek is an acceptable greeting in some European countries, this is not acceptable, and thus represents a proscriptive norm in the United States. Subjective norms are determined by beliefs about the extent to which important others want
4355-547: The significance of a social referent, as represented in the following equation: SN ∝ Σ n i m i , where (n) is a normative belief and (m) is the motivation to comply with said belief. Over the last few decades, several theorists have attempted to explain social norms from a more theoretical point of view. By quantifying behavioral expectations graphically or attempting to plot the logic behind adherence, theorists hoped to be able to predict whether or not individuals would conform. The return potential model and game theory provide
4422-648: The socio-economic system of the society. The study "found evidence that reputational punishment was associated with egalitarianism and the absence of food storage ; material punishment was associated with the presence of food storage; physical punishment was moderately associated with greater dependence on hunting ; and execution punishment was moderately associated with social stratification ." Whereas ideas in general do not necessarily have behavioral implications, Martha Finnemore notes that "norms by definition concern behavior. One could say that they are collectively held ideas about behavior." Norms running counter to
4489-654: The sociological definition, institutionalized deviants may be judged by other group members for their failure to adhere to norms. At first, group members may increase pressure on a non-conformist, attempting to engage the individual in conversation or explicate why he or she should follow their behavioral expectations . The role in which one decides on whether or not to behave is largely determined on how their actions will affect others. Especially with new members who perhaps do not know any better, groups may use discretionary stimuli to bring an individual's behavior back into line. Over time, however, if members continue to disobey ,
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