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42-569: Sayana of Vijayanagara , a 14th century commentator, attributes the entire Aitareya Brahmana to a single man: Mahidasa Aitareya. In his introduction to the text, Sayana suggests that "Aitareya" is a matronymic name. Mahidasa's mother was "Itarā" (इतरा), whose name is derived from the Sanskrit word "itara". She was one of the wives of a great rishi (sage). The rishi preferred sons from his other wives over Mahidasa. Once he placed all his other sons on his lap, but ignored Mahidasa. On seeing tears in

84-561: A global phenomenon". Das Gupta adds that the text's interest in the sun's position appears to be "purely ritualistic", and the verse cannot be conclusively taken as an evidence of the author's recognition of the earth as a sphere. According to K. C. Chattopadhyaya, the verse simply implies that the sun has two sides: one bright and the other dark. In section 3.44, among other things, the Aitareya Brahmana states (translation by Haug): The sun does never rise or set. When people think

126-510: A period of 21 days, and reaches its highest point on vishuvant , the middle day of this period. The gods feared that at this point, the sun would lose its balance, so they tied it with five ropes (the five "ropes" being five prayer verses). The vishuvant is mentioned as an important day for rituals. The text also mentions that the sun burns with the greatest force after passing the meridian . The Aitareya Brahmana (2.7) states: The [sun] never really sets or rises. In that they think of him 'He

168-528: A substantial portion of the Vedic interpretations of his predecessors." Swami Dayananda , the founder of the Arya Samaj , a Vedic revivalist organisation, did not give much significance to his Vedic commentaries. Mount Meru Mount Meru ( Sanskrit / Pali : मेरु), also known as Sumeru , Sineru , or Mahāmeru , is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu , Jain , and Buddhist cosmology and

210-631: A text called Asvalayana Brahmana . For example, Raghunandana (c. 16th century CE), in his Malamasatattva , quotes a verse from what he calls the Asvalayana Brahmana . The verse is a slight variation of an Aitareya Brahmana verse. The common view is that the Asvalayana Brahmana is simply another name for the Aitareya Brahmana . However, according to another theory, it might be a now-lost, similar but distinct Brahmana text. The Aitareya Brahmana with some certainty dates to

252-886: A younger brother named Bhoganatha (or Somanatha). The family belonged to the Bharadvaja gotra , and followed the Taittiriya Shakha (school) of the Krishna Yajurveda . He was the pupil of Vishnu Sarvajna and of Shankarananda. Both Mādhavāchārya and Sāyaṇāchārya were said to have studied under Vidyatirtha of Sringeri , and held offices in the Vijayanagara Empire. Sāyaṇāchārya was a minister, and subsequently prime minister in Bukka Raya's court, and wrote much of his commentary with his brother and other Brahmins during his ministership. Sāyaṇa

294-483: Is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambūdvīpa , in the form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojanas. There are two sets of sun, moon, and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind Mount Meru. Every Tirthankara is taken to the summit of Meru by Indra shortly after his birth, after putting the Tirthankara child's mother into a deep slumber. There, he

336-477: Is bathed and anointed with precious unctions. Indra and other Devas celebrate his birth. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was incorporated into ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara ( Śikhara ) — a Sanskrit word translating literally to "peak" or "summit". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath Temple from

378-522: Is considered to be the centre of all the physical , metaphysical , and spiritual universes. The mountain is also mentioned in some scriptures of non-Indian based religions such as Taoism , which was influenced by the arrival of Buddhism in China. There is no clear identification of Mount Meru with a particular geophysical location but it is always located in the Himalayan or Aravalli ranges. But it

420-580: Is located in the middle of the four great continents (Pubbavideha Dīpa, Uttarakuru Dīpa, Amaragoyāna Dīpa, Jambu Dīpa) of the cosmo. Many famous Hindu , Jain , and Buddhist temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" zh:须弥座 xūmízuò style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas . The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat , a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru. Etymologically, 'meru' in Sanskrit means 'high'. The proper name of

462-471: Is night here, it is day on the other side, the sun does not really rise or sink. — Aitareya Brahmana III.44 (Rigveda) According to Subhash Kak , this implies that according to the author of the verse, the sun does not move and it is the earth that moves, suggesting heliocentrism and rotation of a spherical Earth . According to Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta, this verse implies that the author "clearly understood that days and nights were local rather than

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504-560: Is on the other side." Aitareya Brahmana being a Vedic corpus text and scripture in Hinduism, and the lack of any Mount Meru theories in that text, the medieval era commentators such as Sayana had significant difficulty in reconciling the Vedic era and medieval era cosmographic theories. The medieval era Indian scholars kept the spherical and disc shape cosmography in the Puranas, while the astronomy (Siddhanta) texts for time keeping assumed

546-473: Is setting,' having reached the end of the day, he inverts himself; thus he makes evening below, day above. Again in that they think of him 'He is rising in the morning,' having reached the end of the night he inverts himself; thus he makes day below, night above. He never sets; indeed he never sets." The Sun and the Earth The Sun causes day and night on the earth, because of revolution, when there

588-446: Is undoubtedly a composite work, and it is possible that the Aitareya Brahmana also had multiple authors. According to AB Keith, the present redaction of the work may be ascribed to Mahidasa, but even that cannot be said conclusively. The Asvalayana Srautasutra and Asvalayana Grhyasutra , attributed to the sage Asvalayana, are the srautasutra and grhyasutra associated with the Aitareya Brahmana . Some Sanskrit texts also mention

630-647: The Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Varahamihira and slightly less so in the Aryabhatiya , but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya Purana and the Bhagavata Purana , along with some other Hindu texts, consistently give the height of 84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru, which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. The Sun and Moon along with all

672-454: The Ganges and flow to the earth. The Vayu Purana describes similarly with the mountain located close to a lake consisting of clear water with lotuses and lilies decked with water birds. Bhagavata Purana places Kailash as located south of Mount Meru. Skanda Purana mentions that the mountain is located amongst the highest peaks, perpetually covered with snow. Mount Meru was said to be

714-649: The Long Āgama Sutra . Trāyastriṃśa is at its peak, where Śakra resides. The Sun and the Moon revolve around Mount Meru, and as the Sun passes behind it, it becomes nighttime. The mountain has four faces — each one made of a different material; the northern face is made of gold , the eastern one is made of crystal , the southern one is made of lapis lazuli , and the western one is made of ruby . In Vajrayāna , maṇḍala offerings often include Mount Meru, as they in part represent

756-581: The Mahabharata , the Pandavas along with their wife Draupadi , traveled towards the summit of the mountain as a means to reach the heaven but only Yudhishthira who was accompanied by a dog, was able to make it. The Hindu epic Ramayana describes Kailash and Lake Manasarovar located in the Mount Meru as places unlike anywhere in the world. Vishnu Purana states that Meru is a pillar of

798-623: The Vedas , he flourished under King Bukka Raya I and his successor Harihara II . More than a hundred works are attributed to him, among which are commentaries on nearly all parts of the Vedas. He also wrote on a number of subjects like medicine, morality, music and grammar. Sāyaṇācārya was born to Mayana ( IAST : Māyaṇa) and Shrimati in a Brahmin family who lived in Hampi . He had an elder brother named Madhava (sometimes identified as Vidyaranya ) and

840-405: The 1st millennium BCE, likely to its first half. Published estimates include the following: Forty adhyaya s (chapters) of this work are grouped under eight pañcikā s (group of five). The following is an overview of its contents: Astronomy played a significant role in Vedic rituals, which were conducted at different periods of a year. The Aitareya Brahmana (4.18) states the sun stays still for

882-554: The Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east, Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north, and Kailasha to the south. According to Buddhist cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru) is at the centre of the world, and Jambūdvīpa is south of it. It is 80,000 yojanas wide and 80,000 yojanas high according to the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam and 84,000 yojanas high according to

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924-465: The Rigveda, though it also contains mistakes and contradictions. While some 19th century Indologists were quite dismissive of Sayana's commentary, others were more appreciative. His commentary was used as a reference-guide by Ralph T. H. Griffith (1826–1906), John Muir (1810–1882), H. H. Wilson (1786–1860) and other 19th century European Indologists. According to Wilson, Sayana's interpretation

966-476: The Vedas as "lyrics" without the "theological" background of the interpretations of Yaska and Sayana, Max Müller (1823–1900) published a translation of the Rigvedic Samhitas together with Sayana's commentary. His contemporaries Pischel and Geldner were outspoken about the value of Sayana's commentary: German scholars Pischel and Geldner have expressed in unequivocal terms their opinion that in

1008-599: The Vedas made manifest", written at the request of King Bukka of the Vijayanagara empire "to invest the young kingdom with the prestige it needed." He was probably aided by other scholars, using the interpretations of several authors. The core portion of the commentary was likely written by Sāyaṇāchārya himself, but it also includes contributions by his brother Mādhavāchārya, and additions by his students and later authors who wrote under Sāyaṇāchārya's name. "Sāyaṇa" (or also Sāyaṇamādhava ) by convention refers to

1050-463: The collective authorship of the commentary as a whole without separating such layers. Galewicz states that Sayana, a Mimamsa scholar, "thinks of the Veda as something to be trained and mastered to be put into practical ritual use", noticing that "it is not the meaning of the mantras that is most essential [...] but rather the perfect mastering of their sound form." According to Galewicz, Sayana saw

1092-619: The entire universe. It is also believed that Mount Meru is the home of the Buddha Cakrasaṃvara . Hindus believe Mount Meru to be a stairway to Svarga , a heaven where the devas reside. Meru is considered as the center of the universe and is described as 84,000 yojanas high, about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles), though its magnitude seems to differ over periods — for example,

1134-538: The eyes of her son, Itara prayed to the earth goddess Bhūmi , her kuladevi (tutelary deity). Bhūmi then appeared and gifted Mahidasa the knowledge contained in the Aitareya Brahmana . Mahidasa is mentioned in other works before Sayana, such as the Chandogya Upanishad (3.16.7) and the Aitareya Aranyaka (2.1.7, 3.8). But none of these works mention Sayana's legend. The Aitareya Aranyaka

1176-553: The gods Brahma and Vishnu to fill Java with human beings. However, at that time, Java island was floating freely on the ocean, always tumbling and shaking. To stop the island's movement, the gods decided to nail it to the Earth by moving the part of Mahameru in Jambudvipa ( India ) and attaching it to Java. The resulting mountain is Mount Semeru , the tallest mountain in Java. According to Jain cosmology, Mount Meru (or Sumeru )

1218-419: The matter of Vedic exegesis greater reliance ought to be placed on the orthodox Indian tradition represented by Yaska and Sayana than on modern philological methods. Linguistics may help one to understand the bare meaning of a Vedic word, but the spirit behind that word will not be adequately realised without due appreciation of the indigenous tradition. Modern scholarship is ambivalent. According to Jan Gonda ,

1260-496: The mountain gleans of gold when the rays of the sun fall on it and is said to contain lovely woods, lakes, rivers adorned with fruit trees, precious stones and life saving herbs. It also describes Meru as the means to reach heaven and only a being without any sins would be able to scale it. Meru is also said to be the residence of Kubera who lives near a golden gate with a lake called Alaka adorned with golden lotuses and sweet tasting water from which Mandakini river arises. As per

1302-550: The mountain is Meru (Sanskrit: Meruparvata ), to which is added the approbatory prefix su- , resulting in the meaning "excellent Mount Meru" or "sublime Mount Meru". Meru is also the name of the central bead in a mālā . In other languages, Mount Meru is pronounced: The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru — which all refer to it as a part of the Cosmic Ocean , along with several other statements that describe it in geographically vague terms (e.g., "the Sun along with all

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1344-687: The planets circle the mountain") — make the determination of its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Several researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs , northwest of Kashmir . The Suryasiddhanta mentions that Mt. Meru lies at the centre of the Earth ("bhuva-madhya") in the land of the Jambunad ( Jambudvīpa ). Narapatijayacharyasvarodaya , a ninth-century text, based on mostly unpublished texts of Yāmal Tantr, mentions: Several versions of cosmology can be found in existing Hindu texts. In all of them, cosmologically,

1386-579: The planets revolve around Mount Meru which connects the earth with the under world and heaven with Shiva residing on top of the mountain at Kailasha . Gods and devas are described as frequenting Mount Meru. According to the Mahabharata , Meru is located amidst the Himavat range between Malayavat and Gandhamadhana mountains. Some scriptures indicate that Shiva resides in a horn of the mountains called as Saivatra . Mahabharata further states that

1428-514: The purpose ( artha ) of the Veda as the " artha of carrying out sacrifice", giving precedence to the Yajurveda . For Sayana, whether the mantras had meaning depended on the context of their practical usage. This conception of the Veda, as a repertoire to be mastered and performed, takes precedence over the internal meaning or "autonomous message of the hymns." His commentary on the Rigveda

1470-465: The residence of King Padmaja Brahma in antiquity. This mythical mountain of gods was mentioned in the Tantu Pagelaran , an Old Javanese manuscript written in the 15th-century Majapahit period. The manuscript describes the mythical origin of the island of Java , as well as the legendary movement of portions of Mount Meru to Java. The manuscript explains that Batara Guru ( Shiva ) ordered

1512-575: The spherical assumptions. The king and the god is a text based on the "king Harishcandra" episode (7.14 … 33.2) of Aitareya Brahmana. It has been used to compare different reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European language . Sayana Traditional Sayana ( IAST : Sāyaṇa, also called Sāyaṇācārya; died 1387) was a 14th-century Sanskrit Mimamsa scholar from the Vijayanagara Empire of peninsular India , near modern day Bellary , Karnataka . An influential commentator on

1554-420: The sun is setting (it is not so). For after having arrived at the end of the day it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making night to what is below and day to what is on the other side. When they believe it rises in the morning (this supposed rising is thus to be explained for). Having reached the end of the night, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making night to what is below and day to what

1596-425: The translations of the Rigveda published by Griffith and Wilson were "defective", suffering from their reliance on Sayana. Ram Gopal notes that Sayana's commentary contains irreconcilable contradictions and "half-baked" tentative interpretations which are not further investigated, but also states that Sayana's commentary is the "most exhaustive and comprehensive" of all available commentaries, embodying "the gist of

1638-418: The world, located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus . It also states that the four faces of Mount Kailash are made of crystal , ruby , gold , and lapis lazuli . It further talks about Shiva sitting in a lotus position, engaged in deep meditation within the confines of the mountain. The mountain is home to four lakes, whose water is shared by the gods and four rivers that originate from

1680-405: Was a Sanskrit-language writer and commentator, and more than a hundred works are attributed to him, among which are commentaries on nearly all parts of the Vedas. Some of these works were actually written by his pupils, and some were written in conjunction with his brother, Vidyāraṇya or Mādhavacārya. His major work is his commentary on the Vedas , Vedartha Prakasha , literally "the meaning of

1722-429: Was sometimes questionable, but had "a knowledge of his text far beyond the pretension of any European scholar", reflecting the possession "of all the interpretations which had been perpetuated by traditional teaching from the earliest times." Macdonell (1854–1930) was critical of Sayana's commentary, noting that many difficult words were not properly understood by Sayana. While Rudolf Roth (1821–1895) aimed at reading

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1764-888: Was translated from Sanskrit to English by Max Müller , 1823-1900. A new edition, prepared by the Vaidik Samshodhan Mandala (Vedic Research Institute) Pune, under the general editor V. K. Rajwade , was published in 1933 in four volumes. He has also written many lesser manuals called Sudhanidhis dealing with Prayaschitta ( expiation ), Yajnatantra ( ritual ), Purushartha (aims of human endeavour), Subhashita (Collection of moral sayings), Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine), Sangita Sara (The essence of music), Prayaschitra , Alankara , and Dhatuvrddhi ( grammar ). According to Dalal, "his work influenced all later scholars, including many European commentators and translators." Sayana's commentary preserved traditional Indian understandings and explanations of

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