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63-753: According to traditional etymology, the word Ajam comes from the Semitic root ʿ-j-m . Related forms of the same root include, but are not limited to: Homophonous words, which may or may not be derived from the same root, include: Modern use of "ajam" has the meaning of "non-Arab". Its development from meaning "mute" to meaning "non-Arabic-speaking" is somewhat analogous to that of the word barbarian (< Greek βαρβαρόφωνος barbarophonos ), or Nemtsy for Germans in Slavic languages , which descend from Proto-Slavic *němьcь , itself from *němъ meaning "mute". (From there also comes النمسا (an-Namsa) ,

126-492: A change in Proto-Semitic language structure concomitant with the transition to agriculture . In particular, monosyllabic biconsonantal names are associated with a pre- Natufian cultural background, i.e., older than c.  14500 BCE . As we have no texts from any Semitic language older than c.  3500 BCE , reconstructions of Proto-Semitic are inferred from these more recent Semitic texts. A quadriliteral

189-646: A number of companies under the command of a junior officer or Bey . The Janissaries quickly became the dominant force in Ottoman Libya. As a self-governing military guild answerable only to their own laws and protected by a Divan (in this context, a council of senior officers who advised the Pasha), the Janissaries soon reduced the Pasha to a largely ceremonial role. The Divan-ı Hümayun or Sublime Porte

252-591: A quadriliteral root is actually a reduplication of a two-consonant sequence. So in Hebrew דגדג ‎ digdeg / Arabic دغدغ ‎ daġdaġa means "he tickled", and in Arabic زلزل ‎ zalzala means "he shook". Generally, only a subset of the verb derivations formed from triliteral roots are allowed with quadriliteral roots. For example, in Hebrew, the Piʿel, Puʿal, and Hiṯpaʿel , and in Arabic, forms similar to

315-507: A sequence of two consonants (a relaxation of the situation in early Semitic, where only one consonant was allowed), which has opened the door for a very small set of loan words to manifest apparent five root-consonant forms, such as טלגרף ‎ tilgref "he telegraphed". However, -lgr- always appears as an indivisible cluster in the derivation of this verb and so the five root-consonant forms do not display any fundamentally different morphological patterns from four root-consonant forms (and

378-468: A state", comes from Turkish divan , from Persian دیوان ( dêvân ). It is first attested in Middle Persian spelled as dpywʾn and dywʾn , itself hearkening back, via Old Persian , Elamite and Akkadian , ultimately to Sumerian dub , clay tablet. The word was borrowed into Armenian as well as divan ; on linguistic grounds this is placed after the 3rd century, which helps establish

441-554: A strong wind'. The conjugation of this small class of verb roots is explained by Wolf Leslau . Unlike the Hebrew examples, these roots conjugate in a manner more like regular verbs, producing no indivisible clusters. Divan A divan or diwan ( Persian : دیوان , dīvān ; from Sumerian dub , clay tablet ) was a high government ministry in various Islamic states , or its chief official (see dewan ). The word, recorded in English since 1586, meaning "Oriental council of

504-488: Is a consonantal root containing a sequence of four consonants (instead of three consonants , as is more often the case). A quadriliteral form is a word derived from such a four-consonant root. For example, the abstract quadriliteral root t-r-g-m / t-r-j-m gives rise to the verb forms תרגם ‎ tirgem in Hebrew, ترجم ‎ tarjama in Arabic, ተረጐመ täräggwämä in Amharic , all meaning "he translated". In some cases,

567-421: Is a literal translation of jiḏr . Although most roots in Hebrew seem to be triliteral, many of them were originally biliteral, cf. the relation between: The Hebrew root ש־ק־ף ‎ – √sh-q-p "look out/through" or "reflect" deriving from ק־ף ‎ – √q-p "bend, arch, lean towards" and similar verbs fit into the shaCCéC verb-pattern. This verb-pattern sh-C-C is usually causative , cf. There

630-613: Is a peculiarity of Semitic linguistics that a large majority of these consonantal roots are triliterals (although there are a number of quadriliterals, and in some languages also biliterals). Such roots are also common in other Afroasiatic languages. While Berber mostly has triconsonantal roots, Chadic , Omotic , and Cushitic have mostly biconsonantal roots, and Egyptian shows a mix of biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots. A triliteral or triconsonantal root ( Hebrew : שורש תלת־עיצורי , šoreš təlat-ʻiṣuri ; Arabic : جذر ثلاثي , jiḏr ṯulāṯī ; Syriac : ܫܪܫܐ , šeršā )

693-755: Is a root containing a sequence of three consonants. The following are some of the forms which can be derived from the triconsonantal root k-t-b כ־ת־ב ك-ت-ب (general overall meaning "to write") in Hebrew and Arabic: Note: The Hebrew fricatives stemming from begadkefat lenition are transcribed here as "ḵ", "ṯ" and "ḇ", to retain their connection with the consonantal root כ־ת־ב k-t-b. They are pronounced [ x ] , [ θ ] , [ β ] in Biblical Hebrew and [ χ ] , [ t ] , [ v ] in Modern Hebrew respectively. Modern Hebrew has no gemination ; where there

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756-538: Is almost unknown, except that their treasury was located in their capital of Nishapur . Ya'qub al-Saffar (r. 867–879), the founder of the Saffarid dynasty who supplanted the Tahirids, is known to have had a bureau of the army ( dīwān al-ʿarḍ ) for keeping the lists and supervising the payment of the troops, at his capital Zarang . Under his successor Amr ibn al-Layth (r. 879–901) there were two further treasuries,

819-668: Is debate about whether both biconsonantal and triconsonantal roots were represented in Proto-Afroasiatic , or whether one or the other of them was the original form of the Afroasiatic verb. According to one study of the Proto-Semitic lexicon, biconsonantal roots are more abundant for words denoting Stone Age materials, whereas materials discovered during the Neolithic are uniquely triconsonantal. This implies

882-573: Is so ingrained in the Arab world that it is colloquially used to refer to Persians as "Ajam" neglecting the original definition and etymology of the word. According to Clifford Edmund Bosworth , "by the 3rd/9th century, the non-Arabs, and above all the Persians, were asserting their social and cultural equality ( taswīa ) with the Arabs, if not their superiority ( tafżīl ) over them (a process seen in

945-560: The Arabian Peninsula viewed as "alien" or outsiders. The early application of the term included all of the non-Arab peoples with whom the Arabs had contact including Persians , Byzantine Greeks , Ethiopians , Armenians , Assyrians , Mandaeans , Jews , Georgians , Sabians , Copts , and Berbers . During the early age of the Caliphates, Ajam was often synonymous with "foreigner" or "stranger". In Western Asia, it

1008-814: The Persian Gulf and the cities of Shiraz and Siraf . In Turkish, there are many documents and letters that used Ajam to refer to the Persians. In the Persian Gulf region today, people still refer to Persians/Iranians as Ajami, referring to Persian carpets as sajjad al Ajami (Ajami carpet), Persian cat as Ajami cats, and Persian kings as Ajami kings. گفتمش چو دیوانه بسی گفتی و اکنون پاسخ شنو ای بوده چون دیوان بیابان عیب ار چه کنی اهل گرانمایه عجم را چه بوید شما خود گلهء غر شتربان Jalal Khaleqi Motlaq, "Asadi Tusi", Majaleyeh Daneshkadeyeh Adabiyaat o Olum-e Insani [ Literature and Humanities Magazine ], Ferdowsi University, 1357 (1978). page 71. Semitic root The roots of verbs and most nouns in

1071-612: The Quran the word ajam was used to refer to non-Arabs. Ajam was first used for people of Persia in the poems of pre-Islamic Arab poets; but after the advent of Islam it also referred to Turks, Zoroastrians , and others. Today, in Arabic literature, Ajam is used to refer to all non-Arabs. As the book Documents on the Persian Gulf's name explained, during the Iranian Intermezzo native Persian Muslim dynasties used both

1134-408: The Semitic languages are characterized as a sequence of consonants or " radicals " (hence the term consonantal root ). Such abstract consonantal roots are used in the formation of actual words by adding the vowels and non-root consonants (or " transfixes ") which go with a particular morphological category around the root consonants, in an appropriate way, generally following specific patterns. It

1197-475: The dīwān al-barīd in charge of the postal service ; the bureau of expenditure ( dīwān al-nafaqāt ), which most likely indicates the survival of a Byzantine institution; the dīwān al-ṣadaqa was a new foundation with the task of estimating the zakāt and ʿushr levies; the dīwān al-mustaghallāt administered state property in cities; the dīwān al-ṭirāz controlled the government workshops that made official banners, costumes and some furniture. Aside from

1260-572: The dīwān al-jund , the first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiya (r. 661–680), added the bureau of the land tax ( dīwān al-kharāj ) in Damascus , which became the main dīwān , as well as the bureau of correspondence ( dīwān al-rasāʾil ), which drafted the caliph's letters and official documents, and the bureau of the seal ( dīwān al-khātam ), which checked and kept copies of all correspondence before sealing and dispatching it. A number of more specialist departments were also established, probably by Mu'awiya:

1323-508: The dīwān al-kharāj now included all land taxes ( kharāj , zakāt , and jizya , both in money and in kind), while another department, the dīwān al-ṣadaqa , dealt with assessing the zakāt of cattle. The correspondence of the dīwān al-kharāj was checked by another department, the dīwān al-khātam . As in Umayyad times, miniature copies of the dīwān al-kharāj , the dīwān al-jund and the dīwān al-rasāʾil existed in every province, but by

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1386-617: The dīwān al-sawād , which oversaw the rich lands of lower Iraq, was moved from Baghdad to Shiraz . In addition, a dīwān al-khilāfa was established to oversee the affairs of the Abbasid caliphs, who continued to reside in Baghdad as puppets of the Buyid emirs. The Great Seljuks tended to cherish their nomadic origins, with their sultans leading a peripatetic court to their various capitals. Coupled with their frequent absence on campaign,

1449-432: The mustawfī al-mamālik , a fiscal oversight office ( dīwān al-ishrāf or dīwān al-muʿāmalāt ) under the mushrif al-mamālik , and the army department ( dīwān al-ʿarḍ or dīwān al-jaysh ) under the ʿariḍ (further divided into the recruitment and supply bureau, dīwān al-rawātib , and the salary and land grants bureau, dīwān al-iqṭāʾ ). A number of lesser departments is also attested, although they may not have existed at

1512-475: The māl-e khāṣṣa , and an unnamed bureau under the chief secretary corresponding to a chancery ( dīwān al-rasāʾil or dīwān al-inshāʾ ). The Buyids , who took over Baghdad and the remains of the Abbasid Caliphate in 946, drew partly on the established Abbasid practice, but was adapted to suit the nature of the rather decentralized Buyid "confederation" of autonomous emirates. The Buyid bureaucracy

1575-447: The Arabic alphabet. In Zanzibar ajami and ajamo means a Persian person which comes from the Persian Gulf and the cities of Shiraz and Siraf . In Turkish, there are many documents and letters that used Ajam to refer to Persian. In the Persian Gulf region, people still refer to Persians as Ajami, referring to Persian carpets as sajjad al Ajami (Ajami carpet), Persian cats as Ajami cats, and Persian kings as Ajami kings. During

1638-517: The Arabic name for Austria ). The verb ʿajama originally meant "to mumble, and speak indistinctly", which is the opposite of ʿaraba , "to speak clearly". Accordingly, the noun ʿujma , of the same root, is the opposite of fuṣḥa , which means "chaste, correct, Arabic language". In general, during the Umayyad period ajam was a pejorative term used by Arabs who believed in their social and political superiority, in early history after Islam. However,

1701-527: The Caliph ( dīwān al-riḳāʿ ). Caliph al-Mahdi (r. 775–785) created a parallel dīwān al-zimām (control bureau) for every one of the existing dīwāns , as well as a central control bureau ( zimām al-azimma ). These acted as comptrollers as well as coordinators between the various bureaus, or between individual dīwāns and the vizier. In addition, a dīwān al-maẓālim was created, staffed by judges, to hear complaints against government officials. The remit of

1764-531: The Persian words Pārsi or Irāni , and the Arabic term Ahl Faris (inhabitants of Persia) or ʿAjam , referring to non-Arabs, but primarily to Persians as in molk-e ʿAjam (Persian kingdom) or moluk-e ʿAjam (Persian kings)." According to The Political Language of Islam , during the Islamic Golden Age , 'Ajam' was used colloquially as a reference to denote those whom Arabs in

1827-461: The Umayyad period, the term developed a derogatory meaning as the word was used to refer to non-Arab speakers (primarily Persians) as illiterate and uneducated. Arab conquerors in that period tried to impose Arabic as the primary language of the subject peoples throughout their empire. Angry with the prevalence of the Persian language in the Divan and Persian society, Persian resistance to this mentality

1890-415: The capital into a new department, the dīwān al-dār (bureau of the palace) or dīwān al-dār al-kabīr (great bureau of the palace), where " al-dār " probably meant the vizier's palace. At the same time, the various zimām bureaux were combined into a single dīwān al-zimām which re-checked all assessments, payments and receipts against its own records and, according to the 11th-century scholar al-Mawardi ,

1953-505: The central government, there was a local branch of the dīwān al-kharāj , the dīwān al-jund and the dīwān al-rasāʾil in every province. Under Caliph Abd al-Malik ( r.  685–705 ), the practices of the various departments began to be standardized and Arabized: instead of the local languages ( Greek in Syria , Coptic and Greek in Egypt , Persian in the former Sasanian lands) and

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2016-533: The confiscated properties of the Umayyads after his victory in the Abbasid Revolution . This was probably the antecedent of the later dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ , administering the caliph's personal domains. Similarly, under al-Mansur (r. 754–775) there was a bureau of confiscations ( dīwān al-muṣādara ), as well as a dīwān al-aḥshām , probably in charge of palace service personnel, and a bureau of petitions to

2079-484: The distinction between Arab and Ajam is discernible in pre-Islamic poetry. According to the book Documents on the Persian Gulf's name the Arabs likewise referred to Iran and the Persian (Sassanian) Empire as Bilād Fāris ( Arabic : بلاد فارس ), which means "Lands of Persia", and using Bilād Ajam ( Arabic : بلاد عجم ) as an equivalent or synonym to Persia. The Turks also were using bilad (Belaad) e Ajam as an equivalent or synonym to Persian and Iranian , and in

2142-652: The early age of the Caliphates, Ajam was often synonymous with "foreigner" or "stranger". In Western Asia, it was generally applied to the Persians , while in al-Andalus it referred to speakers of Romance languages – becoming " Aljamiado " in Spanish in reference to Arabic-script writing of those languages – and in West Africa refers to the Ajami script or the writing of local languages such as Hausa and Fulani in

2205-482: The existence of a dīwān al-ḥaram , which supervised the women's quarters of the palace. As the Abbasid Caliphate began to fragment in the mid 9th century, its administrative machinery was copied by the emergent successor dynasties, with the already extant local dīwān branches likely providing the base on which the new administrations were formed. The administrative machinery of the Tahirid governors of Khurasan

2268-503: The holy war against the Byzantine Empire . Under Caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861), a bureau of servants and pages ( dīwān al-mawālī wa ’l-ghilmān ), possibly an evolution of the dīwān al-aḥshām , existed for the huge number of slaves and other attendants of the palace. In addition, the dīwān al-khātam , now also known as the dīwān al-sirr (bureau of confidential affairs) grew in importance. Miskawayh also mentions

2331-465: The literary movement of the Šoʿūbīya ). In any case, there was always in some minds a current of admiration for the ʿAǰam as heirs of an ancient, cultured tradition of life. After these controversies had died down, and the Persians had achieved a position of power in the Islamic world comparable to their numbers and capabilities, " ʿAjam" became a simple ethnic and geographical designation." Thus by

2394-481: The mid-9th century each province also maintained a branch of its dīwān al-kharāj in the capital. The treasury department ( bayt al-māl or dīwān al-sāmī ) kept the records of revenue and expenditure, both in money and in kind, with specialized dīwāns for each category of the latter (e.g. cereals, cloth, etc.). Its secretary had to mark all orders of payment to make them valid, and it drew up monthly and yearly balance sheets. The dīwān al-jahbad̲ha , responsible for

2457-463: The ninth century, the term was being used by Persians themselves as an ethnic term, and examples can be given by Asadi Tusi in his poem comparing the superiority of Persians and Arabs. Accordingly: "territorial notions of 'Iran' are reflected in such terms as irānšahr , irānzamin , or Faris , the Arabicized form of Pārs / Fārs (Persia). The ethnic notion of 'Iranian' is denoted by

2520-467: The orders of Yusuf ibn Umar al-Thaqafi , governor of Iraq, in 741/42. Under the Abbasid Caliphate the administration, partly under the increasing influence of Iranian culture, became more elaborate and complex. As part of this process, the dīwāns increased in number and sophistication, reaching their apogee in the 9th–10th centuries. At the same time, the office of vizier ( wazīr )

2583-513: The original Middle Persian (and eventually New Persian ) form was dīvān , not dēvān , despite later legends that traced the origin of the word to the latter form. The variant pronunciation dēvān however did exist, and is the form surviving to this day in Tajiki Persian . In Arabic, the term was first used for the army registers, then generalized to any register, and by metonymy applied to specific government departments. The sense of

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2646-482: The pattern and جذر jiḏr (plural جذور , juḏūr ) for the root have not gained the same currency in cross-linguistic Semitic scholarship as the Hebrew equivalents, and Western grammarians continue to use "stem"/"form"/"pattern" for the former and "root" for the latter—though "form" and "pattern" are accurate translations of the Arabic grammatical term wazan (originally meaning 'weight, measure'), and "root"

2709-530: The period. Indeed, at the turn of the 11th century, there were two ʿariḍs , one for the Turks and one for the Daylamites, hence the department was often called "department of the two armies" ( dīwān al-jayshayn ). A number of junior departments, like the dīwān al-zimām , the dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ , or the dīwān al-barīd were directly inherited from the Abbasid government. Under Adud al-Dawla (r. 978–983), however,

2772-648: The same root, means "number"; and מִסְפֶּר ‎ misper , from the secondary root מ-ס-פ-ר ‎, means "numbered". An irregular quadriliteral verb made from a loanword is: A quinqueliteral is a consonantal root containing a sequence of five consonants. Traditionally, in Semitic languages, forms with more than four basic consonants (i.e. consonants not introduced by morphological inflection or derivation) were occasionally found in nouns, mainly in loanwords from other languages, but never in verbs. However, in modern Israeli Hebrew, syllables are allowed to begin with

2835-421: The same time: the office charged with the redress of grievances ( dīwān al-maẓālim ), the state treasury ( bayt al-māl ) and the sultan's private treasury ( bayt al-māl al-khaṣṣ ), confiscations ( dīwān al-muṣādara ), the land tax office ( dīwān al-kharāj ) and the department of religious endowments or waqfs ( dīwān al-awqāf ). A postal department ( dīwān al-barīd ) also existed but fell into disuse. The system

2898-422: The stem II and stem V forms of triliteral roots . Another set of quadriliteral roots in modern Hebrew is the set of secondary roots. A secondary root is a root derived from a word that was derived from another root. For example, the root מ-ס-פ-ר ‎ m-s-p-r is secondary to the root ס-פ-ר ‎ s-p-r . סָפַר ‎ saphar , from the root s-p-r , means "counted"; מִסְפָּר ‎ mispar , from

2961-518: The term "quinqueliteral" or "quinquiliteral" would be misleading if it implied otherwise). Only a few Hebrew quinqueliterals are recognized by the Academy of the Hebrew Language as proper, or standard; the rest are considered slang. Other examples are: In Amharic , there is a very small set of verbs which are conjugated as quinqueliteral roots. One example is wäšänäffärä 'rain fell with

3024-760: The traditional practices of book-keeping, seals and time-keeping, only Arabic and the Islamic calendar were to be used henceforth. The process of Arabization was gradual: in Iraq, the transition was carried out by Salih ibn Abd al-Rahman under the auspices of the governor al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf in 697, in Syria by Sulayman ibn Sa'd al-Khushani in 700, in Egypt under Caliph al-Walid I 's governor Abdallah ibn Abd al-Malik in 706, and in Khurasan by Ishaq ibn Tulayq al-Nahshali on

3087-420: The treasury's balance sheets, was eventually branched off from it, while the treasury domains were placed under the dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ , of which there appear at times to have been several. In addition, a department of confiscated property ( dīwān al-musādarīn ) and confiscated estates ( dīwān al-ḍiyāʿ al-maqbūḍa ) existed. Caliph al-Mu'tadid (r. 892–902) grouped the branches of the provincial dīwāns present in

3150-405: The vizier assumed an even greater prominence, concentrating the direction of civil, military and religious affairs in his own bureau, the "supreme dīwān" ( dīwān al-aʿlā ). The dīwān al-aʿlā was further subdivided into a chancery ( dīwān al-inshāʾ wa’l-ṭughrā , also called dīwān al-rasāʾil ) under the ṭughrāʾī or munshī al-mamālik , an accounting department ( dīwān al-zimām wa’l-istīfāʾ ) under

3213-469: The western provinces ( dīwān al-maghrib ), and of the Iraq ( dīwān al-sawād ), although under al-Muqtadir (r. 908–932) the dīwān al-dār still existed, with the three territorial departments considered sections of the latter. In 913/4, the vizier Ali ibn Isa established a new department for charitable endowments ( dīwān al-birr ), whose revenue went to the upkeep of holy places, the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina , and on volunteers fighting in

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3276-478: The word evolved to "custom house" and "council chamber", then to "long, cushioned seat", such as are found along the walls in Middle-Eastern council chambers. The latter is the sense that entered European languages as divan (furniture) . The modern French, Dutch, Spanish, and Italian words douane , aduana , and dogana , respectively (meaning " customs house "), also come from diwan . The first dīwān

3339-506: The words Ajam and Persian to refer to themselves. According to The Political Language of Islam , during the Islamic Golden Age , 'Ajam' was used colloquially as a reference to denote those whom Arabs viewed as "alien" or outsiders. The early application of the term included all of the non-Arab peoples with whom the Arabs had contact including Persians , Byzantine Greeks , Ethiopians , Armenians , Assyrians , Mandaeans , Jews , Georgians , Sabians , Egyptians , and Berbers . During

3402-401: Was also created to coordinate government. The administrative history of the Abbasid dīwāns is complex, since many were short-lived, temporary establishments for specific needs, while at times the sections of larger dīwān might also be termed dīwāns , and often a single individual was placed in charge of more than one department. Caliph al-Saffah (r. 749–754) established a department for

3465-690: Was apparently partly copied in provincial centres as well. Following the Ottoman conquest of North Africa, the Maghreb was divided into three provinces, Algiers , Tunis , and Tripoli . After 1565, administrative authority in Tripoli was vested in a Pasha directly appointed by the Sultan in Constantinople. The sultan provided the pasha with a corps of Janissaries , which was in turn divided into

3528-488: Was created under Caliph Umar ( r.  634–644 CE) in 15 A.H. (636/7 CE) or, more likely, 20 A.H. (641 CE). It comprised the names of the warriors of Medina who participated in the Muslim conquests and their families, and was intended to facilitate the payment of salary ( ʿaṭāʾ , in coin or in rations) to them, according to their service and their relationship to Muhammad . This first army register ( dīwān al-jund )

3591-663: Was for many years the council of ministers of the Ottoman Empire . It consisted of the Grand Vizier , who presided, and the other viziers , the kadi'askers , the nisanci , and the defterdars . The Assemblies of the Danubian Principalities under Ottoman rule were also called "divan" ("Divanuri" in Romanian) (see Akkerman Convention , ad hoc Divan ). In Javanese and related languages,

3654-411: Was generally applied to the Persians , while in al-Andalus it referred to speakers of Romance languages – becoming " Aljamiado " in Spanish in reference to Arabic-script writing of those languages – and in West Africa refers to the Ajami script or the writing of local languages such as Hausa and Fulani in the Arabic alphabet. In Zanzibar ajami and ajamo mean Persian, which came from

3717-413: Was headed by three great departments: the dīwān al-wazīr , charged with finances, the dīwān al-rasāʾil as the state chancery, and the dīwān al-jaysh for the army. The Buyid regime was a military regime, its ruling caste composed of Turkish and Daylamite troops. As a result, the army department was of particular importance, and its head, the ʿariḍ al-jaysh , is frequently mentioned in the sources of

3780-616: Was historically gemination, they are reduced to single consonants, with consonants in the begadkefat remaining the same. In Hebrew grammatical terminology, the word binyan ( Hebrew : בניין , plural בניינים binyanim ) is used to refer to a verb derived stem or overall verb derivation pattern, while the word mishqal (or mishkal ) is used to refer to a noun derivation pattern , and these words have gained some use in English-language linguistic terminology. The Arabic terms, called وزن wazan (plural أوزان , awzān ) for

3843-542: Was popularised in the final verse of Ferdowsi 's Shahnameh ; this verse is widely regarded by Iranians as the primary reason that they speak Persian and not Arabic to this day. Under the Umayyad dynasty, official association with the Arab dominion was only given to those with the ethnic identity of the Arab and required formal association with an Arab tribe and the adoption of the client status ( mawālī , another derogatory term translated to mean "slave" or "lesser" in this context). The pejorative use to denote Persians as "Ajam"

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3906-653: Was soon emulated in other provincial capitals like Basra , Kufa and Fustat . Al-Mughira ibn Shu'ba , a statesman from the Thaqif tribe who was versed in Persian , is credited with establishing Basra's dīwān during his governorship (636–638), and the dīwān of the Caliphate's other garrison centers followed its organization. With the advent of the Umayyad Caliphate , the number of dīwāns increased. To

3969-443: Was the "guardian of the rights of bayt al-māl [the treasury] and the people". The dīwān al-nafaḳāt played a similar role with regards to expenses by the individual dīwāns , but by the end of the 9th century its role was mostly restricted to the finances of the caliphal palace. Under al-Muktafi (r. 902–908) the dīwān al-dār was broken up into three departments, the bureaux of the eastern provinces ( dīwān al-mashriq ), of

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