The Kagera River , also known as Akagera River , or Alexandra Nile , is an East African river, forming part of the upper headwaters of the Nile and carrying water from its most distant source. With a total length of 597 km (371 mi) from its source located in Lake Rweru in Rwanda.
109-737: The section of river named Kagera begins in Burundi , flowing out from Lake Rweru . From the lake, it flows east along the Rwanda -Burundi and Rwanda- Tanzania borders to a confluence with the Ruvubu River . The waters of the Kagera are thus provided by two major tributaries, the Nyabarongo of Rwanda, which feeds Lake Rweru, and the Ruvubu of Burundi. It is unknown which of these two feeder rivers
218-661: A constitutional monarchy with Mwami Mwambutsa IV, Prince Rwagasore's father, serving as the country's king. On 18 September 1962 Burundi joined the United Nations . In 1963, King Mwambutsa appointed a Hutu prime minister, Pierre Ngendandumwe , but he was assassinated on 15 January 1965 by a Rwandan Tutsi employed by the US Embassy. The assassination occurred in the broader context of the Congo Crisis during which Western anti-communist countries were confronting
327-642: A Hutu, in January 1965. The following legislative elections resulted in a Hutu majority in the National Assembly, but mwami Mwambutsa IV decided to appoint Léopold Biha , one of his confidants and a Ganwa, as the Prime Minister, hoping to maintain the monarchy's power. In response, a failed coup d'état was launched against the monarchy by Hutu officers in October 1965; Mwambutsa IV fled
436-776: A complex power-sharing architecture that has been described as "associational" in its logic, as it aims to provide guarantees of representation for the Tutsi minority without entrenching the ethnic cleavage at the centre of Burundian politics. This institutional design provides an original contribution from Burundian negotiators and constitution makers to institutional options to manage ethnic conflict. Reconstruction efforts in Burundi started to practically take effect after 2006. The UN shut down its peacekeeping mission and re-focused on helping with reconstruction. Toward achieving economic reconstruction , Rwanda, D.R.Congo and Burundi relaunched
545-507: A means of obtaining or forcing an outcome, frequently along the lines of "bargaining" or "win-lose". The main objective was to transform the Burundian government and military structurally in order to bridge the ethnic gap between the Tutsi and Hutu. It was to take place in two major steps. First, a transitional power-sharing government would be established, with the presidents holding office for three-year terms. The second objective involved
654-463: A military post in the area in 1896, Germany mainly opted to rule indirectly through the mwami , alternating between strengthening and limiting the power of the Burundian monarchy. Around 1900, an "anti-king" of mysterious origin called Kilima appeared in northern Burundi, using discontent among the local Hutu peasants to challenge the Burundian monarchy and establish his own fiefdom. Kilima led several massacres of Tutsis, and eventually managed to gain
763-468: A new constitution in 1981, which maintained Burundi's status as a one-party state . In August 1984, Bagaza was elected head of state. During his tenure, Bagaza suppressed political opponents and religious freedoms. Major Pierre Buyoya , a Tutsi, overthrew Bagaza in 1987 , suspended the constitution and dissolved political parties. He reinstated military rule by a Military Committee for National Salvation (CSMN). Anti-Tutsi ethnic propaganda disseminated by
872-399: A princely aristocracy ( ganwa ) which owned most of the land and required a tribute, or tax, from local farmers (mainly Hutu) and herders (mainly Tutsi). The Kingdom of Burundi was characterised by a hierarchical political authority and tributary economic exchange. In the mid-18th century, the Tutsi royalty consolidated authority over land, production, and distribution with the development of
981-470: A restructuring of the armed forces, where the two groups would be represented equally. As the protracted nature of the peace talks demonstrated, the mediators and negotiating parties confronted several obstacles. First, the Burundian officials perceived the goals as "unrealistic" and viewed the treaty as ambiguous, contradictory and confusing. Second, and perhaps most importantly, the Burundians believed
1090-642: A result of the Rwandan Revolution, many Rwandan Tutsi refugees arrived in Burundi from 1959 to 1961. Burundi's first elections took place on 8 September 1961 and UPRONA, a multi-ethnic unity party led by Prince Louis Rwagasore won just over 80% of the electorate's votes. In the wake of the elections, on 13 October, the 29-year-old Prince Rwagasore was assassinated , robbing Burundi of its most popular and well-known nationalist. The country claimed independence on 1 July 1962, and legally changed its name from Ruanda-Urundi to Burundi. Burundi became
1199-399: A rural society, with just 13.4% of the population living in urban areas in 2019. Burundi is densely populated, and many young people emigrate in search of opportunities elsewhere. Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi , and fewer than 1% are Twa . The official languages of Burundi are Kirundi , French , and English—Kirundi being officially recognised as
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#17327768571911308-525: A short time. Unlike the Germans, the Belgians exerted much more direct control, gradually undermining the traditional government and social structures. The role of the mwami was further reduced to a figurehead, though his administration was still allowed responsibility for customary law and land allocation. Belgian Resident Pierre Ryckmans described the new policy by stating that "the native kings... are
1417-456: A state of emergency to be declared in areas of Uganda, where these bodies eventually washed up. The Kagera rises in Burundi and flows into Lake Victoria. It is the largest single inflow into the lake, contributing approximately 6.4 billion cubic metres of water a year (about 28 per cent of the lake's outflow ). The Kagera is formed by the confluence of the Ruvuvu and the Nyabarongo , close to
1526-602: A staunch regime of law and order and sharply repressed Hutu militarism. In late April 1972, two events led to the outbreak of the First Burundian Genocide . On 27 April 1972, a rebellion led by Hutu members of the gendarmerie broke out in the lakeside towns of Rumonge and Nyanza-Lac and the rebels declared the short-lived Martyazo Republic . The rebels attacked both Tutsi and any Hutu who refused to join their rebellion. During this initial Hutu outbreak, anywhere from 800 to 1200 people were killed. At
1635-469: A superior people and favoring them in the administration. This gave rise to more ethnic tensions. Burundi's economy began to change due to the introduction of coffee farming as well as the widespread implementation of forced labor. There was also greater mobility, and many Burundians migrated to the Congo and Rwanda to seek work. The first motor road was opened in 1932. Whereas the similar Rwandan monarchy
1744-582: A transitional government for Burundi was planned as a part of the Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement. The transitional government was placed on a trial basis for five years. After several aborted cease-fires, a 2001 peace plan and power-sharing agreement has been relatively successful. A cease-fire was signed in 2003 between the Tutsi-controlled Burundian government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD (National Council for
1853-508: Is ethnically integrated. The focus of the UN's mission had been to enshrine the power-sharing arrangements in a popularly voted constitution, so that elections may be held and a new government installed. Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration were done in tandem with elections preparations. In February 2005, the constitution was approved with over 90% of the popular vote. In May, June and August 2005, three separate elections were also held at
1962-510: Is one of the few countries in Africa, along with its neighbour Rwanda among others (such as Botswana , Lesotho , and Eswatini ), to be a direct territorial continuation of a pre-colonial era African state. The early history of Burundi, and especially the role and nature of the country's three dominant ethnic groups, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi, is highly debated amongst academics. The first evidence of
2071-450: Is required. Civilians are victims of repeated acts of violence done by the FLN. The latter also recruits child soldiers. The rate of violence against women is high. Perpetrators regularly escape prosecution and punishment by the state. There is an urgent need for reform of the judicial system. Genocide , war crimes and crimes against humanity continued to go unpunished. In late March 2008,
2180-607: Is rich in fish. As of 2001, there were at least 55 species known from the Rwandan section alone and the actual number is likely higher. Additionally, there are at least 15 undescribed species of haplochromine cichlids that are endemic to some of the lakes in the upper parts of the river basin. Because of the many waterfalls and rapids, the various sections of the Kagera River basin are clearly separated, making movements by fish between them difficult or even impossible. During
2289-668: Is the longer and hence the ultimate source of the Nile. From the confluence, the Kagera flows north along the Rwanda-Tanzania border, over Rusumo Falls and through Akagera National Park . It then takes a turn to the east, following the Tanzania- Uganda border and emptying into Lake Victoria in Uganda. In 1898, Richard Kandt was the first European to reach the source of the Kagera. The river has featured prominently in
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#17327768571912398-525: Is the poorest country in the world by nominal GDP per capita , and is one of the least developed countries . It faces widespread poverty , corruption , instability , authoritarianism , and illiteracy . The 2018 World Happiness Report ranked the country as the world's least happy with a rank of 156. Burundi is a member of the African Union , Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa , United Nations , East African Community (EAC), OIF and
2507-622: The African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with population of over 14 million people. It is bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and southeast, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Lake Tanganyika lies along its southwestern border. The capital city is Gitega and the largest city is Bujumbura . The Twa , Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi
2616-915: The African Union Mission to Burundi , deployed to help oversee the installation of a transitional government. In June 2004, the UN stepped in and took over peacekeeping responsibilities as a signal of growing international support for the already markedly advanced peace process in Burundi. The mission's mandate, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter , has been to monitor cease-fire, carry out disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration of former military personnel, support humanitarian assistance and refugee and IDP return, assist with elections, protect international staff and Burundian civilians, monitor Burundi's troublesome borders, including halting illicit arms flows, and assist in carrying out institutional reforms including those of
2725-640: The Non-Aligned Movement . Modern Burundi is named after the King of Urundi , who ruled the region starting in the 16th century. It derives its name from a word "Urundi" in Kirundi the local language, which means "Another one". Later the Belgian mandate to Ruanda-Urundi region came to rename it and their former capital "Usumbura" of both kingdoms by adding the letter "B" in front of it. Burundi
2834-593: The Rwandan genocide of 1994, the Kagera was used to dispose of corpses as thousands of Tutsis and Hutu political moderates were murdered on the river banks. The river brought the massacred bodies into Lake Victoria, creating a serious health hazard in Uganda. Burundi Burundi , officially the Republic of Burundi , is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between
2943-626: The Treaty of Versailles , Germany was forced to cede "control" of the Western section of the former German East Africa to Belgium. On 20 October 1924, Ruanda-Urundi , which consisted of modern-day Rwanda and Burundi, became a Belgian League of Nations mandate territory , with Usumbura as its capital. In practical terms it was considered part of the Belgian colonial empire . Burundi, as part of Ruanda-Urundi, continued its kingship dynasty despite
3052-537: The allied powers launched a coordinated attack on the German colony. The German army stationed in Burundi was forced to retreat by the numerical superiority of the Belgian army and by 17 June 1916, Burundi and Rwanda were occupied. The Force Publique and the British Lake Force then started a thrust to capture Tabora , an administrative centre of central German East Africa. After the war, as outlined in
3161-701: The birimizi were Hutus, while most Tutsis lived as borozi , though Hutu agriculturalists also often possessed cattle and Tutsi pastoralists grew crops. Generally, there was little hard distinction between Hutus and Tutsis during much of the kingdom's history. In fact, the Hima subgroup of the Tutsi was regarded as less prestigious than both the Ruguru-Tutsis and the Hutus; while the Ganwa intermarried with Rugurus and Hutus, they would not take Hima spouses. The bottom of
3270-416: The monarchy ; a 1966 coup replaced the monarchy with a one-party republic. Over the next 27 years, Burundi was ruled by a series of Tutsi dictators and notably experienced a genocide of Hutus in 1972 . In July 1993, Melchior Ndadaye became Burundi's first Hutu president following the country's first multi-party presidential election . His assassination three months later during a coup attempt provoked
3379-632: The 12-year Burundian Civil War . In 2000, the Arusha Agreement was adopted, which was largely integrated in a new constitution in 2005. Since the 2005 post-war elections, the country's dominant party has been the National Council for the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of Democracy (CNDD–FDD), widely accused of authoritarian governance and perpetuating the country's poor human rights record . Burundi remains primarily
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3488-919: The Bajiji; they were important enough to be involved in the selection processes for the mwami since the 19th century. The Ganwa and Banyamabanga led the native administration which included the local authorities ( Batware ), delegates ( Vyariho ), and arbiters ( Bashingantahe ); these could be Tutsis or Hutus. The Bashingantahe were important in maintain peace around Burundi; the posts were granted to "outstanding citizens" who guarded traditions, controlled for good behavior, and resolved interpersonal disputes. The commoners were called Banyagihugu , including all who held no official positions, worked for their basic subsistence , and were required to provide tribute and serve as soldiers in war. The Banyagihugu were further divided into agriculturalists ( birimizi ), pastoralists ( borozi ), and artisans ( banyamyuga ). The majority of
3597-651: The Belgian administration was wary of Rwagasore's nationalism . It consequently supported the creation of the Christian Democratic Party ( Parti Démocratique Chrétien , PDC) which rejected immediate independence and was regarded as more moderate. Before long, the parties were also drawn into the long-existing conflict among the nobility, as the Bezi backed UPRONA and the Batare supported the PDC. Aided by
3706-490: The Belgian authorities which placed Rwagasore under house arrest, the PDC won the country's first municipal elections in November 1960. In the 1961 Burundian legislative election , however, UPRONA achieved a landslide victory. Rwagasore became Prime Minister and assembled a government of national unity to prepare for full independence. His tenure was cut short when he was murdered on 13 October 1961 by his political rivals;
3815-530: The Belgians began to switch their support from the Tutsi minority to the Hutu majority, favoring the latter's takeover of the future state. The Burundian independence movement was led by Louis Rwagasore , a prince of the Bezi clan and leader of the Union for National Progress (UPRONA). He hoped to avoid the ethnic and social conflicts of Rwanda, and was able to rally both Tutsis as well as Hutus to his cause. However,
3924-644: The Belgians, the Germans withdrew most of their Schutztruppe forces from the area. From then on, Burundi was only held by the Urundi Company led by Langenn-Steinkeller and the 14th Reserve Company; this garrison consisted of 36 Germans, 250 askari , and 100 Ruga-Ruga . In May 1916, Belgian troops broke through German defenses in Rwanda as part of the early stages of the Tabora offensive , and then turned south to capture Burundi. However, their attempt to capture
4033-726: The Burundian government was talking with the Hutu-led Palipehutu-National Liberation Forces (NLF) to bring peace to the country. African leaders began a series of peace talks between the warring factions following a request by the United Nations Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali for them to intervene in the humanitarian crisis. Talks were initiated under the aegis of former Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere in 1995; following his death, South African President Nelson Mandela took
4142-463: The Burundian state dates back to the late 16th century where it emerged on the eastern foothills. Over the following centuries it expanded, annexing smaller neighbours. The Kingdom of Burundi, or Urundi, in the Great Lakes region was a polity ruled by a traditional monarch with several princes beneath him; succession struggles were common. The king, known as the mwami (translated as ruler) headed
4251-530: The Congo when it had been directly ruled by Leopold II of Belgium , the population of Burundi was generally fearful of the Belgians; though Force Publique troops did not assuage these fears, as they looted and harassed civilians, the Belgian takeover was mostly orderly and its new regime was initially "no harder (nor any easier)" than that of the Germans. The war years exerted a heavy toll on Burundi; locals were conscripted as porters and food requisitioned, resulting in many civilian deaths. In 1922, Burundi
4360-473: The Constitution, judiciary, armed forces and police. The mission has been allotted 5,650 military personnel, 120 civilian police and about 1,000 international and local civilian personnel. The mission has been functioning well. It has greatly benefited from the transitional government, which has functioned and is in the process of transitioning to one that will be popularly elected. The main difficulty in
4469-410: The Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy). In 2003, FRODEBU leader Domitien Ndayizeye (Hutu) was elected president. In early 2005, ethnic quotas were formed for determining positions in Burundi's government. Throughout the year, elections for parliament and president occurred. Pierre Nkurunziza (Hutu), once a leader of a rebel group, was elected president in 2005. As of 2008 ,
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4578-452: The FLN sought for the parliament to adopt a law guaranteeing them 'provisional immunity' from arrest. This would cover ordinary crimes, but not grave violations of international humanitarian law like war crimes or crimes against humanity . Even though the government has granted this in the past to people, the FLN has been unable to obtain the provisional immunity. On 17 April 2008, the FLN bombarded Bujumbura. The Burundian army fought back and
4687-399: The FLN suffered heavy losses. A new ceasefire was signed on 26 May 2008. In August 2008, President Nkurunziza met with the FLN leader Agathon Rwasa , with the mediation of Charles Nqakula , South Africa's Minister for Safety and Security. This was the first direct meeting since June 2007. Both agreed to meet twice a week to establish a commission to resolve any disputes that might arise during
4796-423: The Ganwa, namely the Bezi, Batare, Bataga, and Bambutsa. These lineages struggled for control, and the Bezi and Batare became especially fierce rivals. Infighting between these families became one of the major sources of conflict within Burundi. After this early period of consolidation, Burundi was limited in its ability to expand due to bordering at other, more powerful states. In the early 19th century, however,
4905-791: The German East Africa Company, the British Empire and the Sultanate of Zanzibar , the German Empire was called upon to put down the Abushiri revolts and protect the empire's interests in the region. The German East Africa Company transferred its rights to the German Empire in 1891, in this way establishing the German colony of German East Africa , which included Burundi (Urundi), Rwanda (Ruanda), and
5014-577: The German administration from Usumbura to Gitega , close to the traditional heartland of the Burundian monarchy. During World War I , Burundi was contested between Germany and the Allies . From 1914, the Ruzizi River marked the frontline in the area; in September 1915, German forces crossed the border and attacked Luvungi in the neighbouring Belgian Congo . After this attack was repelled by
5123-475: The Hutu in the administration. They were arrested and jailed. A few weeks later, Buyoya appointed a new government, with an equal number of Hutu and Tutsi ministers. He appointed Adrien Sibomana (Hutu) as Prime Minister. Buyoya also created a commission to address issues of national unity. In 1992, the government created a new constitution that provided for a multi-party system, but a civil war broke out. An estimated total of 250,000 people died in Burundi from
5232-633: The Hutu-dominated Front for Democracy in Burundi (FRODEBU), won the first democratic election. He became the first Hutu head of state, leading a pro-Hutu government. Though he attempted to smooth the country's bitter ethnic divide, his reforms antagonised soldiers in the Tutsi-dominated army, and he was assassinated amidst a failed military coup in October 1993, after only three months in office. The ensuing Burundian Civil War (1993–2005) saw persistent violence between Hutu rebels and
5341-643: The Hutu-dominated police was carried out but failed. The Tutsi dominated army, then led by Tutsi officer Captain Michel Micombero purged Hutu from their ranks and carried out reprisal attacks which ultimately claimed the lives of up to 5,000 people in a precursor to the 1972 Burundian Genocide . King Mwambutsa, who had fled the country during the October coup of 1965, was deposed by a coup in July 1966 and his teenage son, Prince Ntare V , claimed
5450-460: The Hutus, becoming known as the Ganwa and regarded as a de facto separate group. As a result of the Ganwa being neither Tutsi nor Hutu, the clan was able to keep the loyalty of both ethnic groups. The head of the Ganwa and ruler of Burundi was known as the mwami ; however, the kingdom was extensively decentralised. Succession struggles were also common. Over time, four important lineages emerged in
5559-541: The Kingdom of Burundi experienced an increase in power. Ntare IV ( r. c. 1795–1852) was able to conquer several smaller Tutsi and Hutu kingdoms as well as areas which later became part of Rwanda and Tanzania . Together with the Kingdom of Rwanda, he conquered and divided the Bugesera kingdom . However, Ntare IV's decisions regarding his succession greatly affected the monarchy, as he appointed his sons as
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#17327768571915668-779: The Muslims also set up local palm oil production. Islam remained prominent among merchants during the kingdom's existence, but did not spread substantially in Burundi until after the monarchy had been abolished. In 1879, the first Christian missionaries arrived in Burundi, but they were killed. After the start of the German domination, however, the Catholic Church and its representatives quickly garnered great influence in Burundi. The Catholic White Fathers were quite successful in proselytizing by opening schools and hospitals as well as tolerating widespread syncretism : Instead of directly challenging Burundi's traditional religion,
5777-558: The Ruanda-Urundi union. In the following months, Burundian political parties began to advocate for the end of Belgian colonial rule and the separation of Rwanda and Burundi. The first and largest of these political parties was the Union for National Progress (UPRONA). Burundi's push for independence was influenced by the Rwandan Revolution and the accompanying instability and ethnic conflict that occurred there. As
5886-518: The Tutsi majority army. It is estimated that some 300,000 people, mostly civilians, were killed in the years following the assassination. In early 1994, the parliament elected Cyprien Ntaryamira (Hutu) to the office of president. He and Juvénal Habyarimana , the president of Rwanda, both Hutus, died together when their airplane was shot down in April 1994. More refugees started fleeing to Rwanda. Speaker of Parliament, Sylvestre Ntibantunganya (Hutu),
5995-541: The Tutsis, the Ganwa constituted a socially, politically, and to some extent ethnically distinct group. Ranking directly below the Ganwa were the Banyamabanga, a prestigious and wealthy social class that assumed important political and ritualist positions at the royal court, the courts of regional leaders, and among the remaining population. The majority of the Banyamabanga belonged to Hutu lineages, most importantly
6104-625: The White Fathers presented Imana as a form of the Christian God . Thus, elements of the old cult carried over into the local form of Christianity. However, the White Fathers largely dismantled the religious elements of the Burundian monarchy. The first Protestant missionaries arrived in 1911; these were German Lutherans , and they fled the country in World War I. When the Belgians took over Burundi, they began to directly support
6213-407: The White Fathers, further boosting their proselytization efforts. In the 1920s, more Protestants like the Seventh-day Adventists , Angelicans , Danish Baptists , Swedish Pentecostals , American Quakers , and Free Methodists came to Burundi. The Catholic and Protestant missionaries were generally very successful, and Burundi was largely Christian by the end of the Belgian rule. Most members of
6322-415: The administrators of the newly conquered territories. His sons, part of the Batare, became powerful nobles and dominated northern Burundi in the next decades. Ntare IV's heir, Mwezi IV of Burundi ( r. 1852–1908) fought with his siblings for control, but ultimately only managed to maintain control of half of Burundi. The rest remained under the control of his brothers and their descendants. By 1850,
6431-448: The already settled farmers. After gaining control over the existing population, the newly arrived settlers ultimately assimilated them. Based on societal and oral traditions, it is generally believed that the region's pastoralists were the ancestors of the later Tutsi ethnic group , while the agriculturalists became the Hutus . However, the exact origins of Burundi's ethnic groups remain unclear and disputed. The Kingdom of Burundi
6540-424: The assassination was probably connected to the Batare-Bezi rivalry. Rwagasore's death derailed his attempts to build national inter-ethnic cohesion and facilitated the growth of Hutu-Tutsi tensions which would dominate the remaining years of the Kingdom of Burundi. In 1962, the Kingdom of Burundi regained its independence as a constitutional monarchy in which the mwami held executive power and legislative power
6649-406: The communist People's Republic of China as it attempted to make Burundi a logistics base for communist insurgents battling in Congo. Parliamentary elections in May 1965 brought a majority of Hutu into the parliament, but when King Mwambutsa appointed a Tutsi prime minister, some Hutu felt this was unjust and ethnic tensions were further increased. In October 1965, an attempted coup d'état led by
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#17327768571916758-499: The constitution and was sworn in as president in 1998. This was the start of his second term as president, after his first term from 1987 to 1993. In response to rebel attacks, the government forced much of the population to move to refugee camps . Under Buyoya's rule, long peace talks started, mediated by South Africa . Both parties signed agreements in Arusha , Tanzania and Pretoria , South Africa, to share power in Burundi. The agreements took four years to plan. On 28 August 2000,
6867-504: The country and refused to return, even as he claimed to still hold supreme power. The failed coup strengthened radical Tutsis. Mwambutsa's son, Ntare V , attempted to solve the crisis by deposing his father in the July 1966 coup d'état , but was himself ousted from power in a November 1966 coup d'état by his Prime Minister, Michel Micombero , who abolished the monarchy . In March 1972 Ntare returned to Burundi via helicopter from Uganda after years in exile under disputed circumstances. He
6976-408: The country's chiefs and subchiefs. These developments led to increased social conflicts, and a series of peasant uprisings in the 1920s and 1930s. These rebellions targeted both the Belgians as well as the Batare lineage that was seen as being more closely aligned with the colonial power than the Bezi. Furthermore, the Belgians strengthened the division between Hutus and Tutsis, regarding the latter as
7085-420: The country, first by Germany and then by Belgium. These residents had far-reaching power, and also involved themselves in the internal politics of the kingdom. For instance, resident Langenn-Steinkeller appointed the regency council which governed Burundi during the minority of Mwambutsa IV. However, the resident system never fully functioned during the German rule, as most of the residents held their post only for
7194-456: The distinction between Hutu and Tutsi was also a socio-cultural concept, instead of a purely ethnic one. There were also many reports of marriages between Hutu and Tutsi people. In general, regional ties and power struggles played a far more determining role in Burundi's politics than ethnicity. From 1884, the German East Africa Company was active in the African Great Lakes region. As a result of heightened tensions and border disputes between
7303-472: The early stages was continued resistance to the peace process by the last Hutu nationalist rebel group. This organisation continued its violent conflict on the outskirts of the capital despite the UN's presence. By June 2005, the group had stopped fighting and its representatives were brought back into the political process. All political parties have accepted a formula for inter-ethnic power-sharing: no political party can gain access to government offices unless it
7412-416: The exact context of the state's foundation are disputed. The region was originally inhabited by Twa hunter-gatherers before the influx of Bantu farmers from about the 11th century. The Kingdom of Burundi was probably founded in the 16th or 17th century when pastoralists entered the area. The pastoralists arrived in waves and initially founded a number of small kingdoms, exploiting the lack of unity among
7521-412: The familiar décor that permits us to act behind the scenes without alarming the people". The Belgians also implemented racist policies designed to divide and rule by favoring Tutsis over Hutus, while cementing ethnic devisions by introducing the ethnic origin of Burundians on new identity documents . The royal clan, the Ganwa (or Baganwa), formed Burundi's leading elite. Though often associated with
7630-487: The government. However, smaller militant Hutu groups – such as the Forces for National Liberation – remained active. Between 1993 and 2003, many rounds of peace talks, overseen by regional leaders in Tanzania, South Africa and Uganda , gradually established power-sharing agreements to satisfy the majority of the contending groups. Initially the South African Protection Support Detachment was deployed to protect Burundian leaders returning from exile. These forces became part of
7739-420: The helm. As the talks progressed, South African President Thabo Mbeki and United States President Bill Clinton also lent their respective weight. The peace talks took the form of Track I mediations . This method of negotiation can be defined as a form of diplomacy involving governmental or intergovernmental representatives, who may use their positive reputations, mediation, or the "carrot and stick" method as
7848-444: The histories of the countries it runs through, particularly Rwanda. In 1894, German Gustav Adolf von Götzen crossed the Kagera at Rusumo Falls, marking the Rwandan colonial era that officially started in 1899. And in 1916, during World War I , the Belgians defeated the Germans, entering Rwanda by the same route. The river gained international notoriety in 1994 for carrying bodies from the Rwandan genocide into Lake Victoria, causing
7957-399: The killings. Analysts have called this period the beginning of the "culture of impunity." Other analysts put the origins of the "culture of impunity" earlier, in 1965 and 1972, when a small number of identifiable Hutus unleashed massive killings of Tutsis. In the aftermath of the killings, a group of Hutu intellectuals wrote an open letter to Pierre Buyoya , asking for more representation of
8066-568: The kingdom's borders had taken a form which largely overlap with the modern state of Burundi. One of the greatest successes of Mwezi IV was his victory over Zanzibari Arab slave traders in a battle at Rumonge . This clash resulted in no slaves ever being taken or traded in Burundi, contrasting to surrounding regions which heavily suffered under slave raids. The first European explorers to reach Burundi were Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke in 1858, followed by Henry Morton Stanley and David Livingstone in 1871. Mwezi IV of Burundi
8175-474: The legislative division of Burundi's government between chiefdoms and lower chiefdoms. Chiefdoms were in charge of land, and lower sub-chiefdoms were established. Native authorities also had powers. In 1948, Belgium allowed the region to form political parties . These factions contributed to Burundi gaining its independence from Belgium, on 1 July 1962. On 20 January 1959, King Mwami Mwambutsa IV requested Burundi's independence from Belgium and dissolution of
8284-412: The local German Schutztruppe garrison failed, as Langenn-Steinkeller's force successfully evaded them and retreated from the region. The Belgians occupied Burundi's capital of Gitega on 17 June 1916. The Burundian monarchy, at the time led by a regency council due to the minority of mwami Mwambutsa IV , officially surrendered to the Belgians ten days later. As a result of the atrocities committed in
8393-593: The local level for the Parliament and the presidency. While there are still some difficulties with refugee returns and securing adequate food supplies for the war-weary population, the mission managed to win the trust and confidence of a majority of the formerly warring leaders, as well as the population at large. It was involved with several "quick effect" projects, including rehabilitating and building schools, orphanages, health clinics and rebuilding infrastructure such as water lines. The 2005 Constitution formalised
8502-630: The mainland part of Tanzania (formerly known as Tanganyika ). The German Empire stationed armed forces in Rwanda and Burundi during the late 1880s. The location of the present-day city of Gitega served as an administrative centre for the Ruanda-Urundi region. During the First World War , the East African Campaign greatly affected the African Great Lakes region. The Belgian and British colonial forces of
8611-474: The nascent government, and when the ceasefire would begin. The spoilers of the peace talks were the hardliner Tutsi and Hutu groups who refused to sign the accord; as a result, violence intensified. Three years later at a summit of African leaders in Tanzania, the Burundian president and the main opposition Hutu group signed an accord to end the conflict; the signatory members were granted ministerial posts within
8720-485: The nobility and in this way also had a say in the functioning of the state. The classification of Hutu or Tutsi was not merely based on ethnic criteria alone. Hutu farmers that managed to acquire wealth and livestock were regularly granted the higher social status of Tutsi, some even made it to become close advisors of the Ganwa . On the other hand, there are also reports of Tutsi that lost all their cattle and subsequently lost their higher status and were called Hutu. Thus,
8829-407: The nominal overlordship of the mwami . As a result of the nobility's power as well as the infighting within the royal family, the power of the mwami remained rather limited during the kingdom's existence. However, the mwami were highly respected and revered as the "embodiment of God". The traditional symbol of the Burundian monarchy were the royal drums. The most important of these instruments
8938-598: The northernmost point of Lake Tanganyika . It forms parts of the Burundi– Tanzania , Rwanda –Tanzania, Burundi–Rwanda, and Tanzania– Uganda borders. It lends its name to Akagera National Park in northern Rwanda, as well as to the Kagera Region of Tanzania. On the river are the Rusumo Falls , an important crossing point between Rwanda and Tanzania. It is near the town of Rusumo . The Kagera River basin
9047-426: The number of people killed between 80,000 and 210,000. In addition, several hundred thousand Hutu were estimated to have fled the killings into Zaïre , Rwanda and Tanzania . Following the civil war and genocide, Micombero became mentally distraught and withdrawn. In 1976, Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza , a Tutsi, led a bloodless coup to topple Micombero and set about promoting reform. His administration drafted
9156-667: The peace negotiations. The UN has attempted to evaluate the impact of its peace-building initiatives. In the early 2010s, the UN peacekeeping mission in Burundi sought to assess the success of its Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program by counting the number of arms that had been collected, given the prevalence of arms in the country. However, these evaluations failed to include data from local populations, which are significant in impact evaluations of peacebuilding initiatives. Kingdom of Burundi The Kingdom of Burundi ( French : Royaume du Burundi ), also known as Kingdom of Urundi ( Kirundi : Ubwami bw'Urundi ),
9265-516: The presence of European authorities. The Belgians, however, preserved many of the kingdom's institutions; the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post-colonial period. Following the Second World War , Ruanda-Urundi was classified as a United Nations Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority. During the 1940s, a series of policies caused divisions throughout the country. On 4 October 1943, powers were split in
9374-611: The regional Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries . In addition, Burundi, along with Rwanda, joined the East African Community in 2007. However, the terms of the September 2006 Ceasefire between the government and the last remaining armed opposition group, the FLN (Forces for National Liberation, also called NLF or FROLINA), were not totally implemented, and senior FLN members subsequently left
9483-536: The remnants of the 1972 UBU, which had re-organized as PALIPEHUTU in 1981, led to killings of Tutsi peasants in the northern communes of Ntega and Marangara in August 1988. The government put the death toll at 5,000, some international NGOs believed this understated the deaths. The new regime did not unleash the harsh reprisals of 1972. Its effort to gain public trust was eroded when it decreed an amnesty for those who had called for, carried out, and taken credit for
9592-429: The same time, King Ntare V of Burundi returned from exile, heightening political tension in the country. On 29 April 1972, the 24-year-old Ntare V was murdered. In subsequent months, the Tutsi-dominated government of Michel Micombero used the army to combat Hutu rebels and commit genocide, murdering targeted members of the Hutu majority. The total number of casualties was never established, but contemporary estimates put
9701-405: The social hierarchy was formed by the Twa who lived as either hunter-gatherers or as potters. Even the Twa could advance socially, however, and be adopted into the clans belonging to other ethnic groups. Despite the intermixing between Hutus and Tutsis, and the diverse chances for political and social advancement, there existed substantial inequality. The political and social system of the kingdom
9810-449: The sole national language . English was made an official language in 2014. One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi's land is used mostly for subsistence agriculture and grazing. Deforestation , soil erosion , and habitat loss are major ecological concerns. As of 2005 , the country was almost completely deforested. Less than 6% of its land was covered by trees, and over half of that being for commercial plantations. Burundi
9919-412: The state's founders were ethnic Hutu and had migrated from Buha (modern Kigoma Region ) to Nkoma before arriving in Burundi. It has also been proposed that the royal clan was descended from Hima pastoralists who had migrated from southern Ethiopia. Under Ntare I, Burundi expanded and annexed a number of surrounding polities. Over time, his royal clan became separated from both the Tutsis as well as
10028-410: The support of first the Germans and later the Belgians, preserving his autonomy. There was little direct impact of the German rule on the country. However, Burundi suffered under a rinderpest outbreak and sleeping sickness epidemic during this period, causing a substantial loss of population and economic hardship. In 1912, German colonial resident Erich von Langenn-Steinkeller moved the seat of
10137-616: The throne. In November that same year, the Tutsi Prime Minister, then-Captain Michel Micombero, carried out another coup , this time deposing Ntare, abolishing the monarchy and declaring the nation a republic , though his one-party government was effectively a military dictatorship . As president, Micombero became an advocate of African socialism and received support from the People's Republic of China. He imposed
10246-529: The treaty would be irrelevant without an accompanying cease fire. This would require separate and direct talks with the rebel groups. The main Hutu party was skeptical of the offer of a power-sharing government; they alleged that they had been deceived by the Tutsi in past agreements. In 2000, the Burundian President signed the treaty, as well as 13 of the 19 warring Hutu and Tutsi factions. Disagreements persisted over which group would preside over
10355-610: The truce monitoring team, claiming that their security was threatened. In September 2007, rival FLN factions clashed in the capital, killing 20 fighters and causing residents to begin fleeing. Rebel raids were reported in other parts of the country. The rebel factions disagreed with the government over disarmament and the release of political prisoners. In late 2007 and early 2008, FLN combatants attacked government-protected camps where former combatants were living. The homes of rural residents were also pillaged. The 2007 report of Amnesty International mentions many areas where improvement
10464-588: The ubugabire—a patron-client relationship in which the populace received royal protection in exchange for tribute and land tenure. By this time, the royal court was made up of the Tutsi-Banyaruguru. They had higher social status than other pastoralists such as the Tutsi-Hima. In the lower levels of this society were generally Hutu people, and at the very bottom of the pyramid were the Twa. The system had some fluidity, however. Some Hutu people belonged to
10573-636: The various conflicts between 1962 and 1993. Since Burundi's independence in 1962, two genocides have taken place in the country: the 1972 mass killings of Hutus by the Tutsi-dominated army, and the mass killings of Tutsis in 1993 by the Hutu majority. Both were described as genocides in the final report of the International Commission of Inquiry for Burundi presented in 2002 to the United Nations Security Council . In June 1993, Melchior Ndadaye , leader of
10682-413: Was a Bantu kingdom in the modern-day Republic of Burundi . The Ganwa monarchs (with the title of mwami ) ruled over both Hutus and Tutsis . Created in the 16th century, the kingdom was preserved under German and Belgian colonial rule in the late 19th and early 20th century and was an independent state between 1962 and 1966. The date of the foundation of the Kingdom of Burundi is unknown, and
10791-481: Was abolished in a revolution between 1959 and 1961, the Burundian monarchy succeeded in surviving into the post-colonial period. By the early 1960s, Burundi's monarchy still held considerable popular support, both among the Tutsis as well as the Hutus. After World War II , an independence movement developed in Burundi, In 1946, the United Nations exerted pressure on Belgium to prepare Burundi's independence as well as introduce democratic reforms. From this point,
10900-495: Was an independent kingdom . In 1885, it became part of the German colony of German East Africa . After the First World War and Germany's defeat , the League of Nations mandated the territories of Burundi and neighboring Rwanda to Belgium in a combined territory called Rwanda-Urundi . After the Second World War , this transformed into a United Nations Trust Territory . Burundi gained independence in 1962 and initially retained
11009-481: Was appointed as president in October 1994. A coalition government involving 12 of the 13 parties was formed. A feared general massacre was averted, but violence broke out. A number of Hutu refugees in Bujumbura, the then-capital, were killed. The mainly Tutsi Union for National Progress withdrew from the government and parliament. In 1996, Pierre Buyoya (Tutsi) again took power through a coup d'état . He suspended
11118-422: Was founded by first mwami Ntare I ( r. c. 1680–1705); the commonly accepted founding date is 1680. There exist different accounts about the ethnic origin of Ntare I. According to the "Kanyaru traditions", Ntare's royal clan and its associates were related to Rwanda's royal family, and had migrated from Rwanda to Burundi. Another telling of the events, provided by the "Nkoma cycle", suggests that
11227-553: Was given to the parliament. By late 1963, the Burundian government allowed Congolese revolutionary Gaston Soumialot to recruit thousands of fighters along the Burundian-Congolese border. Soumialot and his troops consequently participated in the Simba rebellion . Ethnic violence between the Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority rose between 1963 and 1965. This culminated in the murder of Prime Minister Pierre Ngendandumwe ,
11336-417: Was immediately detained before eventually being executed at Gitega by government troops the following month. The Kingdom of Burundi was led by the mwami who presided over a large and powerful aristocracy. Before Burundi's colonization, the kingdom was highly decentralized; though this number fluctuated, on average there were 220 powerful noble lineages. The regional elite often held wide independence under
11445-450: Was likened to feudalism by researcher Nigel Watt who pointed out that many Hutu peasants, especially in certain provinces, faced substantial repression. Rural rebellions were not uncommon. Burundi's royal army was also mainly recruited from Ganwa and Tutsis. On average, high-ranking positions were given to Hutus "by favour", whereas many Tutsis were granted posts "by right". Burundi's traditional religion had one god, called Imana , who
11554-411: Was officially assigned to the Belgian colonial empire (together with the neighbouring Kingdom of Rwanda ) as part of Ruanda-Urundi , an international mandate by the League of Nations . The Belgians preserved many of the kingdom's institutions intact, but in contrast to the limited overlordship by Germany, they exerted more control, imposing forced labor and more taxes. They also gradually deposed
11663-470: Was opposed by a devil -like personification of death called Urupfu . The cult surrounding Imana was called ukubandwa and headed by the Kiranga , a kind of high priest. In addition, ancestor worship was widely practised in Burundi. The traditional religion was practised by the country's Hutus and Tutsis. In the 19th century, Islam reached Burundi due to the settlement of Arab and Swahili traders;
11772-411: Was the inkiranya , a holy drum allegedly created by the first mwami . The royal drums were kept at a special sanctuary, guarded by certain Hutu families, and used during festivals, rituals, and royal ceremonies. The flag of the kingdom contained a karyenda drum in the center as a symbol of royal authority. After the colonization of Burundi, a series of colonial residents were appointed to oversee
11881-547: Was wary of the Europeans, resisting initial attempts by Christian missionaries to proselytize the population. In 1890, Burundi was assigned to the German colonial empire as part of German East Africa , but was not effectively occupied or controlled by the colonial power. Mwezi IV initially refused to acknowledge German rule, and demonstratively rejected outside influences, even including cotton clothing. Besides establishing
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