85-538: Al-Walid الوليد [REDACTED] Calligraphic representation of Al-Walid name Pronunciation Walid, Waleed Gender Male Origin Word/name Semitic (Arabic) Meaning Newborn Region of origin Arabia ( Middle East ) Al-Walid may refer to: People [ edit ] Khalid ibn al-Walid (592–642), one of
170-572: A close relative of his brother Hisham at the helm of the Islamic holy cities, al-Walid installed his cousin Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz , who was the husband of al-Walid's sister Fatima and brother to al-Walid's wife Umm al-Banin, the mother of Abd al-Aziz. On al-Walid's orders, Umar had Hisham publicly humiliated, an unprecedented motion against a sacked governor of Medina, which set "a dangerous precedent", according to McMillan. Umar maintained friendly ties to
255-417: A daughter, A'isha. From another Umayyad wife, Umm Abd Allah bint Abd Allah ibn Amr, a great-granddaughter of Caliph Uthman ( r. 644–656 ), al-Walid had his son Abd al-Rahman. He also married Umm Abd Allah's niece, Izza bint Abd al-Aziz, whom he divorced. Out of his twenty-two children, fifteen were born to slave concubines , including al-Abbas, whose mother was Greek. According to al-Tabari ,
340-751: A form of reconciliation ... a constructive counterweight to the political damage" caused by the Umayyad sieges of Mecca in 683 and 692 and assault on Medina during the civil war. Other mosques that al-Walid is credited for expanding in the Hejaz include the Sanctuary Mosque around the Kaaba in Mecca and the mosque of Ta'if . Al-Walid died of an illness in Dayr Murran , an Umayyad winter estate on
425-466: A more Arabic and Islamic character on the state, and expand its borders were continued. He heavily depended on al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , his father's powerful viceroy over the eastern half of the caliphate. During his reign, armies commissioned by al-Hajjaj conquered Sind and Transoxiana in the east, while the troops of Musa ibn Nusayr , the governor of Ifriqiya , conquered the Maghreb and Hispania in
510-487: A reader is not familiar with Arabic pronunciation. Examples in Literary Arabic : There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to romanize the language. A Beirut newspaper, La Syrie , pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin script in 1922. The major head of this movement was Louis Massignon , a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before
595-678: A result of the Battle of Marj Rahit , which inaugurated Marwan's reign in 684, a sharp division developed among the Syrian Arab tribes, who formed the core of the Umayyad army. The loyalist tribes that supported Marwan formed the Yaman confederation, alluding to ancestral roots in Yemen (South Arabia), while the Qays , or northern Arab tribes, largely supported Ibn al-Zubayr. Abd al-Malik reconciled with
680-745: A sahaba of Muhammad Abu al-Walid al-Dahdouh (died 2006), senior leader of the Palestinian militant group Islamic Jihad Al-Waleed bin Talal (born 1955), member of the Saudi Royal Family Jonah ibn Janah (990s–1050s), important Hebrew grammarian and lexicographer of the Middle Ages Walid ibn Utbah (died 624), son of Quraish leader Utba ibn Rabi'ah Walid ibn Utbah (died 624), son of Quraish leader Utba ibn Rabi'ah Places [ edit ] Al Waleed (town) ,
765-800: A town in Anbar Province, Iraq, bordering Syria Al-Waleed (camp) , a Palestinian refugee camp in Iraq See also [ edit ] Waleed , an Arabic name Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Al-Walid . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Al-Walid&oldid=1197927907 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Human name disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
850-504: A way to reclaim and reemphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used. There was also the idea of finding a way to use hieroglyphics instead of the Latin alphabet. A scholar, Salama Musa , agreed with
935-561: A wide-scale building program. His patronage of great mosques in Damascus, Jerusalem and Medina underlined his political legitimacy and religious credentials. The mosque he founded in Damascus, later known as the Umayyad Mosque , was the greatest architectural achievement of his rule. Under his predecessors, Muslim residents had worshipped in a small musalla (prayer room) attached to the 4th-century Christian cathedral of John
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#17327722800021020-452: Is a useful tool for anyone who is familiar with the sounds of Arabic but not fully conversant in the language. One criticism is that a fully accurate system would require special learning that most do not have to actually pronounce names correctly, and that with a lack of a universal romanization system they will not be pronounced correctly by non-native speakers anyway. The precision will be lost if special characters are not replicated and if
1105-451: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Al-Walid I Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan ( Arabic : الوليد بن عبد الملك بن مروان , romanized : al-Walīd ibn ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Marwān ; c. 674 – 23 February 715), commonly known as al-Walid I (Arabic: الوليد الأول ), was the sixth Umayyad caliph , ruling from October 705 until his death in 715. He
1190-560: Is sought". Al-Walid embraced the formal trappings of monarchy in a manner unprecedented among earlier caliphs. He resided at several palaces, including in Khunasira in northern Syria and Dayr Murran. The considerable wealth in his treasury allowed him to spend extravagantly on his relatives. Expectations of such grants among the growing number of Umayyad princes continued under his successors. Their generous stipends and costly private constructions were resented by "nearly everyone else" in
1275-585: The Arabs solidified their control of Cilicia and the areas east of the Euphrates River and launched raids deep into Anatolia . After one such raid against Ancyra in 714, the Byzantine emperor Anastasios II ( r. 713–715 ) sent a delegation to negotiate a truce with al-Walid or decipher his intentions. The delegates reported back that al-Walid was planning a land and naval assault to conquer
1360-662: The Berbers of the Hawwara , Zenata and Kutama confederations and advanced on the Maghreb (western North Africa). In 708 or 709, he conquered Tangier and Sus , in the far north and south of modern-day Morocco. Musa's Berber mawla (freedman or client; pl. mawali ), Tariq ibn Ziyad , invaded the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) in 711, and was reinforced by Musa in
1445-633: The Byzantine Empire , which dated to the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 630s, resumed in 692 after the collapse of the truce that had been reached three years earlier. Annual campaigns were thereafter launched by the Umayyads in the Arab–Byzantine frontier zone and beyond. During his father's caliphate, al-Walid led the campaigns in 696, 697, 698 and 699. In his summer 696 campaign, he raided
1530-593: The Prophet's Mosque in Medina. Its redevelopment entailed the demolition of the living quarters of Muhammad's wives and the incorporation of the graves of Muhammad and the first two caliphs, Abu Bakr ( r. 632–634 ) and Umar. The vocal opposition to the demolition of Muhammad's home from local religious circles was dismissed by al-Walid. He lavished large sums for the reconstruction and supplied mosaics and Greek and Coptic craftsmen. According to Hillenbrand,
1615-639: The Third Muslim Civil War (744–750). Yazid III acceded but died six months later, after which he was succeeded by his half-brother Ibrahim. The latter did not attain wide recognition and was overthrown in December 744 by a distant Umayyad kinsman, Marwan II ( r. 744–750 ). Several descendants of al-Walid, progeny of his son Rawh, were executed during the Abbasid Revolution which toppled Umayyad rule in 750. Others from
1700-641: The Umayyad princes , became a financial burden on his successors. Al-Walid was born in Medina in c. 674 , during the rule of Mu'awiya I ( r. 661–680 ), the founder and first caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate . His father, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan , was a member of the Umayyad dynasty . While Mu'awiya belonged to the Umayyads' Sufyanid branch, resident in Syria , al-Walid's family
1785-796: The al-Aqsa Mosque , which was built on the same axis of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount, was originally built by Abd al-Malik or al-Walid. Several architectural historians hold that Abd al-Malik commissioned the project and that al-Walid finished or expanded it. The earliest source indicating al-Walid's work on the mosque is the Aphrodito Papyri, which contain letters from December 708 – June 711 between his governor of Egypt, Qurra ibn Sharik, and an official in Upper Egypt discussing
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#17327722800021870-575: The classical Arabic in which the Qur'an was written but insisted that everyone in his company have knowledge of the Qur'an. Al-Walid essentially continued his father's policies of centralization and expansion. Unlike Abd al-Malik, al-Walid heavily depended on al-Hajjaj and allowed him free rein over the eastern half of the caliphate. Moreover, al-Hajjaj strongly influenced al-Walid's internal decision-making, with officials often being installed and dismissed upon
1955-454: The sound of the language, since short vowels and geminate consonants, for example, do not usually appear in Arabic writing. As an example, the above rendering munāẓaratu l-ḥurūfi l-ʻarabīyah of the Arabic : مناظرة الحروف العربية is a transcription, indicating the pronunciation; an example transliteration would be mnaẓrḧ alḥrwf alʻrbyḧ . Early Romanization of
2040-443: The 9th-century historian Umar ibn Shabba . Several panegyrics were dedicated to al-Walid and his sons by al-Farazdaq , his official court poet. The latter's contemporary, Jarir , lamented the caliph's death in verse: "O eye, weep copious tears aroused by remembrance; after today there is no point in your tears being stored." The Christian poet al-Akhtal considered al-Walid to be "the caliph of God through whose sunna rain
2125-653: The Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at romanization failed as the Academy and the population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. Sa'id Afghani, a member of the Academy, asserted that the movement to romanize the script was a Zionist plan to dominate Lebanon. After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for
2210-403: The Arabic language was standardized in the various bilingual Arabic-European dictionaries of the 16–19th centuries: Any romanization system has to make a number of decisions which are dependent on its intended field of application. One basic problem is that written Arabic is normally unvocalized ; i.e., many of the vowels are not written out, and must be supplied by a reader familiar with
2295-513: The Arabic script, and representation of the language in scientific publications by linguists . These formal systems, which often make use of diacritics and non-standard Latin characters and are used in academic settings or for the benefit of non-speakers, contrast with informal means of written communication used by speakers such as the Latin-based Arabic chat alphabet . Different systems and strategies have been developed to address
2380-455: The Baptist . By al-Walid's reign, the musalla could not cope with the fast-growing Muslim community and no sufficient free spaces were available in Damascus for a large congregational mosque. In 705, al-Walid had the cathedral converted into a mosque, compensating local Christians with other properties in the city. Most of the structure was demolished. Al-Walid's architects replaced
2465-517: The Byzantine capital Constantinople . Al-Walid died in 715 and the siege was carried out under his successors, ending in 718 as a disaster for the Arabs. Al-Walid entrusted most of Syria's military districts to his sons; al-Abbas was assigned to Homs , Abd al-Aziz to Damascus , and Umar to Jordan . In Palestine , al-Walid's brother Sulayman had been appointed by their father as governor and remained in office under al-Walid. Sulayman sheltered
2550-480: The Hejaz and leader of the Hajj pilgrimage. Both offices were of great prestige owing to the central religious importance of Mecca and Medina, the two holiest cities of Islam . Al-Walid dismissed him in 706 as punishment for flogging and humiliating the prominent Medinan scholar Sa'id ibn al-Musayyib for refusing to give the oath of allegiance to al-Walid as heir apparent during Abd al-Malik's reign. Although Hisham's act
2635-485: The Hejaz once again developing into a center of anti-Umayyad activity as it had during the Second Muslim Civil War, dismissed Umar in 712. He split the governorship of the Hejaz, appointing al-Hajjaj's nominees Khalid ibn Abdallah al-Qasri to Mecca and Uthman ibn Hayyan al-Murri to Medina. Neither was ever appointed to lead the Hajj, al-Walid reserving that office for Maslama and his own sons. As
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2720-537: The Muslim Arabs of Syria , who held him in high esteem. His reign was marked by domestic peace and prosperity and likely represented the peak of Umayyad power, though it is difficult to ascertain his direct role in its affairs. The balance al-Walid maintained among the elites, including the Qays and Yaman army factions , may have been his key personal achievement. On the other hand, the massive military expenditures of his rule, as well as his extravagant grants to
2805-518: The Qays in 691, but competition for influence between the two factions intensified as the Syrian army was increasingly empowered and deployed to the provinces, where they replaced or supplemented Iraqi and other garrisons. Al-Walid maintained his father's policy of balancing the power of the two factions in the military and administration. According to the historian Hugh N. Kennedy , it is "possible that
2890-688: The Umayyads reached their furthest territorial extent. Expansion from the eastern frontiers was overseen by al-Hajjaj from Iraq. His lieutenant governor of Khurasan , Qutayba ibn Muslim , launched several campaigns in Transoxiana (Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715. Qutayba gained the surrender of Bukhara in 706–709, Khwarazm and Samarkand in 711–712, and Farghana in 713. He mainly secured Umayyad suzerainty through tributary alliances with local rulers, whose power remained intact. With Qutayba's death in 716, his army disbanded and
2975-411: The area between Malatya (Melitene) and al-Massisa (Mopsuestia), while in the following year, he targeted a place known in Arabic sources as 'Atmar', located at some point north of Malatya. He also led the annual Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca in 698. In 700 or 701, al-Walid patronized the construction or expansion of Qasr Burqu' , a fortified Syrian Desert outpost on the route connecting Palmyra in
3060-431: The assessment of Shaban: Walīd I's reign (705–15/86–96) was in every way a direct continuation of his father's and was unruffled. Ḥajjāj remained in power, in fact he became more powerful, and the same policies were followed. The only difference was that the tranquillity of these years allowed Walīd to develop further the internal implications of the ʿAbdulmalik-Ḥajjāj policy. The historian Gerald Hawting comments that
3145-399: The building of a large-scale mosque in Medina, the original center of the caliphate, was an "acknowledgement" by al-Walid of "his own roots and those of Islam itself" and possibly an attempt to appease Medinan resentment at the loss of the city's political importance to Syria under the Umayyads. In the words of McMillan, the mosque and the works benefitting the pilgrims to the holy cities "were
3230-490: The caliph kept it [the rivalry] on the boil so that one faction [would] not acquire a monopoly of power". Al-Walid's mother genealogically belonged to the Qays and he accorded Qaysi officials certain advantages. However, Wellhausen doubts that al-Walid preferred one faction over the other, "for he had no need to do so, and it is not reported" by the medieval historians. The Qays–Yaman division intensified under al-Walid's successors, who did not maintain his balancing act. The feud
3315-421: The caliphate and were "a drain on the treasury", according to the historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship . More significant were the costs to equip and pay the armies driving the conquests. The substantial expenditures under both Abd al-Malik and al-Walid became a financial burden on their successors, under whom the flow of war spoils, on which the caliphal economy depended, began to diminish. Blankinship notes that
3400-453: The cities. They invested in land reclamation projects, entailing irrigation networks and canals, which boosted agricultural production. Al-Hajjaj also carried out irrigation and canal projects in Iraq during this period, in a bid to restore its agricultural infrastructure, damaged by years of warfare, and to find employment for its demobilized inhabitants. Al-Walid or his son al-Abbas founded
3485-410: The city of Anjar , between Damascus and Beirut , in 714. It included a mosque, palace, and residential, commercial, and administrative structures. According to the art historian Robert Hillenbrand , Anjar "has the best claim of any Islamic foundation datable before 750 ... to be a city", though it was probably abandoned within forty years of its construction. In the Hejaz, al-Walid attempted to redress
Al-Walid - Misplaced Pages Continue
3570-409: The combined reigns of al-Walid and Abd al-Malik, tied together by al-Hajjaj, represented in "some ways the high point of Umayyad power, witnessing significant territorial advances both in the east and the west and the emergence of a more marked Arabic and Islamic character in the state's public face". Domestically, it was generally a period of peace and prosperity. Kennedy asserts that al-Walid's reign
3655-428: The demolished space with a large prayer hall and a courtyard bordered on all sides by a closed portico with double arcades. The mosque was completed in 711. The army of Damascus, numbering some 45,000 soldiers, were taxed a quarter of their salaries for nine years to pay for its construction. The scale and grandeur of the great mosque made it a "symbol of the political supremacy and moral prestige of Islam", according to
3740-503: The deposed governor of Khurasan, Yazid ibn al-Muhallab , a fugitive from al-Hajjaj's prison, in 708. Despite his initial disapproval, al-Walid pardoned Yazid as a result of Sulayman's lobbying and payment of the heavy fine that al-Hajjaj had imposed on Yazid. Between 693 and 700, Abd al-Malik and al-Hajjaj initiated the dual processes of establishing a single Islamic currency in place of the previously used Byzantine and Sasanian coinage and replacing Greek and Persian with Arabic as
3825-432: The descendants of the fourth caliph, Ali ( r. 656–661 ), and the prominent Umayyad statesman, Sa'id ibn al-As . Al-Walid married two of Ali's great-granddaughters, Nafisa bint Zayd ibn al-Hasan and Zaynab bint al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan. He married Sa'id's daughter, Amina, whose brother al-Ashdaq had been removed from the line of succession by Marwan and was killed in an attempt to topple Abd al-Malik. One of his wives
3910-415: The dispatch of Egyptian laborers and craftsmen to help build the "Mosque of Jerusalem". It is likely that the unfinished administrative and residential structures that were built opposite the southern and eastern walls of the Temple Mount, next to the mosque, date to the era of al-Walid, who died before they could be completed. In 706 or 707, al-Walid instructed Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz to significantly enlarge
3995-562: The elder statesman Marwan I ( r. 684–685 ), was recognized as caliph by pro-Umayyad Arab tribes. With the tribes' support, he restored the dynasty's rule in Syria and Egypt by the end of his reign. Abd al-Malik succeeded Marwan and conquered the rest of the caliphate, namely Iraq , Iran , and Arabia. With the key assistance of his viceroy of Iraq, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , Abd al-Malik instituted several centralization measures, which consolidated Umayyad territorial gains. The war with
4080-485: The enormous losses incurred during the 717–718 siege of Constantinople alone "practically wiped out the gains made under al-Walid". Compared to his brothers, al-Walid had an "exceptional number of marriages", at least nine, which "reflect both his seniority in age ... and his prestige as a likely successor" to Abd al-Malik, according to the historian Andrew Marsham. The marriages were intended to forge political alliances, including with potential rival families like those of
4165-484: The following reasons: A fully accurate transcription may not be necessary for native Arabic speakers, as they would be able to pronounce names and sentences correctly anyway, but it can be very useful for those not fully familiar with spoken Arabic and who are familiar with the Roman alphabet. An accurate transliteration serves as a valuable stepping stone for learning, pronouncing correctly, and distinguishing phonemes. It
4250-533: The following year. By 716, a year after al-Walid's death, Hispania had been largely conquered . The massive war spoils netted by the conquests of Transoxiana, Sind and Hispania were comparable to the amounts accrued in the Muslim conquests during the reign of Caliph Umar ( r. 634–644 ). Al-Walid appointed his half-brother Maslama as governor of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) and charged him with leading
4335-580: The growing non-Arab populations in the cities. Welfare programs included financial relief for the poor and servants to assist the handicapped, though this initiative was limited to Syria, and only to the Arab Muslims there. As such, Shaban considered it "a special state subsidy to the ruling class". Al-Walid turned the example of his father's construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem into
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#17327722800024420-406: The hardships of pilgrims making the trek to Mecca by having water wells dug throughout the province, improving access through the mountain passes, and building a drinking fountain in Mecca. The historian M. A. Shaban theorizes that while al-Walid's projects in the cities of Syria and the Hejaz had a "utilitarian purpose", they were mainly intended to provide employment, in the form of cheap labor, for
4505-459: The historian Nikita Elisséeff. Noting al-Walid's awareness of architecture's propaganda value, Hillenbrand calls the mosque a "victory monument" intended as a "visible statement of Muslim supremacy and permanence". The mosque has maintained its original form until the present day. In Jerusalem, al-Walid continued his father's works on the Temple Mount . There is disagreement as to whether
4590-450: The holy cities' religious circles. He led the Hajj for at least four of the six years he was in office, with al-Walid's son Umar leading it in 707 and al-Walid leading it in 710, the only time he left Syria during his caliphate. Umar provided safe haven to Iraqis evading the persecution of al-Hajjaj. Umar informed al-Walid of al-Hajjaj's abuses, while al-Hajjaj advised the caliph to dismiss Umar for hosting Iraqi rebels. Al-Walid, wary of
4675-583: The idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Egyptian Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in script, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words. Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid and Muhammad Azmi , two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported
4760-453: The inherent problems of rendering various Arabic varieties in the Latin script. Examples of such problems are the symbols for Arabic phonemes that do not exist in English or other European languages; the means of representing the Arabic definite article , which is always spelled the same way in written Arabic but has numerous pronunciations in the spoken language depending on context; and
4845-400: The language as spoken, typically rendering names, for example, by the people of Baghdad ( Baghdad Arabic ), or the official standard ( Literary Arabic ) as spoken by a preacher in the mosque or a TV newsreader. A transcription is free to add phonological (such as vowels) or morphological (such as word boundaries) information. Transcriptions will also vary depending on the writing conventions of
4930-432: The language of the bureaucracy in Syria and Iraq, respectively. These administrative reforms continued under al-Walid, during whose reign, in 705 or 706, Arabic replaced Greek and Coptic in the diwan (government departments) of Egypt. The change was implemented by al-Walid's half-brother, Abd Allah , the governor of Egypt and appointee of Abd al-Malik. These policies effected the gradual transition of Arabic as
5015-676: The language. Hence unvocalized Arabic writing does not give a reader unfamiliar with the language sufficient information for accurate pronunciation. As a result, a pure transliteration , e.g., rendering قطر as qṭr , is meaningless to an untrained reader. For this reason, transcriptions are generally used that add vowels, e.g. qaṭar . However, unvocalized systems match exactly to written Arabic, unlike vocalized systems such as Arabic chat, which some claim detracts from one's ability to spell. Most uses of romanization call for transcription rather than transliteration : Instead of transliterating each written letter, they try to reproduce
5100-490: The latter refused to step down from the line of succession, he died in 704 or early 705, removing the principal obstacle to al-Walid's nomination. After the death of Abd al-Malik on 9 October 705, al-Walid acceded. Al-Walid was physically described by the 9th-century historian al-Ya'qubi as "tall and swarthy ... snub-nosed ... with a touch of gray [sic] at the tip of his beard". He noted that al-Walid "spoke ungrammatically". To his father's chagrin, al-Walid abandoned speaking
5185-615: The lines of his sons al-Abbas and Umar survived, including the Habibi family, which attained prominence in the Umayyad emirate of al-Andalus after its establishment in 756. Romanization of Arabic The romanization of Arabic is the systematic rendering of written and spoken Arabic in the Latin script . Romanized Arabic is used for various purposes, among them transcription of names and titles, cataloging Arabic language works, language education when used instead of or alongside
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#17327722800025270-456: The mother of al-Walid's son Yazid III ( r. 744–744 ) was Shah-i-Afrid (also called Shahfarand), the daughter of the Sasanian prince Peroz III and granddaughter of the last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III ( r. 632–651 ). She had been taken captive in the conquest of Transoxiana and was gifted to al-Walid by al-Hajjaj. The mother of his son Ibrahim ( r. 744–744 )
5355-525: The north with the Azraq oasis and Wadi Sirhan basin in the south, ultimately leading to Mecca and Medina. His patronage is attested by an inscription naming him as "the emir al-Walid, son of the commander of the faithful ". According to the historian Jere L. Bacharach , al-Walid built the nearby site of Jabal Says , likely as a Bedouin summer encampment between his base of operations in al-Qaryatayn and Qasr Burqu'. Bacharach speculates that al-Walid used
5440-415: The outskirts of Damascus, on 23 February 715, about one year after al-Hajjaj's death. He was buried in Damascus at the cemetery of Bab al-Saghir or Bab al-Faradis and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz led the funeral prayers. Al-Walid unsuccessfully attempted to nominate his son Abd al-Aziz as his successor and void the arrangements set by his father, in which Sulayman was to succeed al-Walid. Relations between
5525-537: The push for romanization. The idea that romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo. He believed and desired to implement romanization in a way that allowed words and spellings to remain somewhat familiar to the Egyptian people. However, this effort failed as
5610-432: The representation of short vowels (usually i u or e o , accounting for variations such as Muslim /Moslem or Mohammed /Muhammad/Mohamed ). Romanization is often termed "transliteration", but this is not technically correct. Transliteration is the direct representation of foreign letters using Latin symbols, while most systems for romanizing Arabic are actually transcription systems, which represent
5695-537: The same sound in the Arabic script, e.g. alif ا vs. alif maqṣūrah ى for the sound /aː/ ā , and the six different ways ( ء إ أ آ ؤ ئ ) of writing the glottal stop ( hamza , usually transcribed ʼ ). This sort of detail is needlessly confusing, except in a very few situations (e.g., typesetting text in the Arabic script). Most issues related to the romanization of Arabic are about transliterating vs. transcribing; others, about what should be romanized: A transcription may reflect
5780-402: The sites, located in the territory of Arab tribes, to reaffirm their loyalty, which had been critical to the Umayyads during the civil war. Toward the end of his reign, Abd al-Malik, supported by al-Hajjaj, attempted to nominate al-Walid as his successor, abrogating the arrangement set by Marwan whereby Abd al-Malik's brother, the governor of Egypt, Abd al-Aziz , was slated to succeed. Though
5865-428: The sole official language of the state, unified the varied tax systems of the caliphate's provinces and contributed to the establishment of a more ideologically Islamic government. In 709, al-Walid replaced Abd Allah with his katib (scribe), Qurra ibn Sharik al-Absi , who belonged to the same tribe as the caliph's mother. This was prompted either because of mounting complaints against Abd Allah's corruption, which
5950-432: The sound of the words according to the orthography rules of the target language: Qaṭar . This applies equally to scientific and popular applications. A pure transliteration would need to omit vowels (e.g. qṭr ), making the result difficult to interpret except for a subset of trained readers fluent in Arabic. Even if vowels are added, a transliteration system would still need to distinguish between multiple ways of spelling
6035-412: The target language; compare English Omar Khayyam with German Omar Chajjam , both for عمر خيام /ʕumar xajjaːm/ , [ˈʕomɑr xæjˈjæːm] (unvocalized ʿmr ḫyām , vocalized ʻUmar Khayyām ). A transliteration is ideally fully reversible: a machine should be able to transliterate it back into Arabic. A transliteration can be considered as flawed for any one of
6120-435: The two brothers had become strained. Sulayman acceded and dismissed nearly all of al-Walid's governors. Although he maintained the militarist policies of al-Walid and Abd al-Malik, expansion of the caliphate largely ground to a halt under Sulayman ( r. 715–717 ). According to the historian Giorgio Levi Della Vida , "The caliphate of al-Walīd saw the harvest of the seed planted by the long work of ʿAbd al-Malik". In
6205-648: The two famous Arab generals of the Rashidun army during the Muslim conquests of the 7th Century Al-Walid I (668–715), Umayyad caliph who ruled from 705 to 715 Al-Walid II (709–744), Umayyad caliph who ruled from 743 until 744 Muslim ibn al-Walid (748–823), poet Ibrahim ibn al-Walid (died 750), Umayyad caliph who ruled for a short time in 744 Averroes (1126–1198), or Abul Walid Muhammad Ibn Aḥmad Ibn Rushd, Andalusian-Arab philosopher, physician, and polymath Abu al-Walid (1967–2004), Arab Mujahid who fought in both Chechen Wars Najiyah bint al-Walid ,
6290-401: The viceroy's recommendation. The renewal of the Muslim conquests on the eastern and western frontiers had begun under Abd al-Malik, after he neutralized the Umayyads' domestic opponents. Under al-Walid, the armies of the caliphate "received a fresh impulse" and a "period of great conquests" began, in the words of the historian Julius Wellhausen . During the second half of al-Walid's reign,
6375-491: The war effort against Byzantium. Although Maslama established a strong power base in the frontier zone, the Umayyads made few territorial gains during al-Walid's reign. After a lengthy siege , the Byzantine fortress of Tyana was captured and sacked in c. 708 . Al-Walid did not lead any of the annual or bi-annual campaigns, but his eldest son al-Abbas fought reputably alongside Maslama. His other sons Abd al-Aziz , Umar , Bishr and Marwan also led raids. By 712,
6460-586: The weak Arab position in Transoxiana allowed for the local princes and the Turgesh nomads to roll back most of Qutayba's gains by the early 720s. From 708 or 709, al-Hajjaj's nephew, Muhammad ibn al-Qasim , conquered Sind , the northwestern part of South Asia. In the west, al-Walid's governor in Ifriqiya (central North Africa ), Musa ibn Nusayr , another holdover from Abd al-Malik's reign, subjugated
6545-483: The west, bringing the caliphate to its largest territorial extent. War spoils from the conquests enabled al-Walid to finance impressive public works, including his greatest architectural achievement, the Great Mosque of Damascus , as well as the al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina . He was the first caliph to institute programs for social welfare, aiding the poor and handicapped among
6630-531: Was "remarkably successful and represents, perhaps, the zenith of Umayyad power", though his direct role in these successes is unclear and his primary accomplishment may have been maintaining the equilibrium between the rival factions of the Umayyad family and military. By virtue of the conquests of Hispania, Sind and Transoxiana during his reign, his patronage of the great mosques of Damascus and Medina, and his charitable works, al-Walid's Syrian contemporaries viewed him as "the worthiest of their caliphs", according to
6715-563: Was a concubine named Su'ar or Budayra. His other sons by concubines were Umar, Bishr, Masrur , Mansur, Rawh, Khalid, Jaz, Maslama, Tammam, Mubashshir, Yahya, and Sadaqa. In 744, around a dozen of al-Walid's sons, probably resentful at being sidelined from the caliphal succession, conspired with other Umayyad princes and elites under Yazid III to topple their cousin Caliph al-Walid II ( r. 743–744 ). His assassination in April 744 sparked
6800-506: Was a daughter of a Qurayshite leader, Abd Allah ibn Muti , who was a key official under Ibn al-Zubayr. Among his other wives was a woman of the Qaysi Banu Fazara tribe, with whom he had his son Abu Ubayda. Marsham notes al-Walid's marriage to his first cousin, Umm al-Banin , "tied the fortunes" of Abd al-Malik and her father, Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan. From her al-Walid had his sons Abd al-Aziz, Muhammad, Marwan, and Anbasa, and
6885-415: Was a major contributor to the Umayyad regime's demise in 750. From the beginning of his rule, al-Walid inaugurated public works and social welfare programs on a scale unprecedented in the caliphate's history. The efforts were financed by treasure accrued from the conquests and tax revenue. He and his brothers and sons built way-stations and dug wells along the roads in Syria and installed street lighting in
6970-407: Was blamed for Egypt's first recorded famine under Islamic rule, or a desire to install a loyalist as governor. Qurra ibn Sharik served until his death in 715 and established a more efficient means of tax collection, reorganized Egypt's army and, on al-Walid's orders, restored the mosque of Fustat . Al-Walid initially kept Abd al-Malik's appointee, Hisham ibn Isma'il al-Makhzumi , as governor of
7055-407: Was in support of al-Walid, he considered it an abusive excess. According to the historian M. E. McMillan, other than al-Walid's "sense of righteous indignation", dynastic politics motivated his dismissal order. Hisham was the maternal grandfather of al-Walid's half-brother Hisham , who was a contender for the caliphal succession, which al-Walid coveted for his son Abd al-Aziz. Rather than leaving such
7140-657: Was part of the larger Abu al-As line in the Hejaz (western Arabia , where Mecca and Medina are located). His mother, Wallada bint al-Abbas ibn al-Jaz, was a descendant of Zuhayr ibn Jadhima , a famous 6th-century chief of the Banu Abs tribe. In 684, after Umayyad rule collapsed amid the Second Muslim Civil War , the Umayyads of the Hejaz were expelled by a rival claimant to the caliphate, Ibn al-Zubayr , and relocated to Syria. There al-Walid's grandfather,
7225-575: Was the eldest son of his predecessor, Caliph Abd al-Malik ( r. 685–705 ). As a prince, he led annual raids against the Byzantines from 695 to 698 and built or restored fortifications along the Syrian Desert route to Mecca . He became heir apparent in c. 705 , after the death of the designated successor, Abd al-Malik's brother Abd al-Aziz ibn Marwan . Under al-Walid, his father's efforts to centralize government, impose
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