Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken ( VGF , United Rayon Factories) was a German manufacturer of artificial fiber founded in 1899 that became one of the leading European producers of rayon .
105-788: During the first thirty years VGF cooperated closely with the British manufacturer Courtaulds and other companies to share technology and maintain prices by avoiding competition. It merged with the Dutch firm Enka in 1929 under the holding company Algemene Kunstzijde Unie ( AKU ), but the two retained their legal identities. AKU made significant investments in rayon production in the United States. The company suffered government interference in Nazi Germany (1933–45) and lost competitive strength during World War II , but partly recovered after
210-577: A century. Cuprammonium rayon has properties similar to viscose; however, during its production, the cellulose is combined with copper and ammonia ( Schweizer's reagent ). Due to the detrimental environmental effects of this production method, cuprammonium rayon is no longer being produced in the United States . The process has been described as obsolete, but cuprammonium rayon is still made by one company in Japan. Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate
315-483: A cotton shortage due to the Allied blockade, ordered 3,000 tons of viscose staple from VGF, which was used for a variety of military textiles including clothing. Consumers saw the rayon fabrics as inferior to cotton and associated it with wartime privations. The Niedermorschweiler plant was destroyed by fire during the war. Germany's defeat in the war cost the company market share both domestically and internationally. In
420-409: A discrepancy in the ability to identify natural fibers in a marine environment via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy . Later research of oceanic microfibers instead found cotton being the most frequent match (50% of all fibers), followed by other cellulosic fibers at 29.5% (e.g., rayon/viscose, linen, jute, kenaf, hemp, etc.). Further analysis of the specific contribution of rayon to ocean fibers
525-606: A few years the process became highly successful and was responsible for transforming the silk weaver into the world's leading man-made fibre production company. Courtaulds also entered the market of cellulosics ( viscose and acetate ) in North America with the setting up of the American Viscose Corporation (AVC) in 1909. The investment in the US was highly successful, but its sale at a knock-down price
630-856: A highly viscous solution. Cross and Bevan took out British Patent No. 8,700, "Improvements in Dissolving Cellulose and Allied Compounds" in May, 1892. In 1893, they formed the Viscose Syndicate to grant licences and, in 1896, formed the British Viscoid Co. Ltd. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the UK company Courtaulds Fibres in November 1905. Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose (later known as Avtex Fibers), to produce their formulation in
735-437: A hostile takeover attempt by Imperial Chemical Industries was defeated. Throughout the 1980s, Courtaulds conducted research on solvent-spun cellulose fibres, using amine oxides. This process had previously been suggested by Eastman-Kodak, but their patent was nearing expiration. By the 1990s, this research led to pilot scale facilities and a subsequent patent battle with Lenzing. These companies initially cross-licensed, but
840-560: A less environmentally-harmful process for making Rayon led to the development of the lyocell method for producing Rayon. The lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka, North Carolina . In 2003, the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for lyocell. In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. In
945-509: A pilot plant in 1990, and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes/year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal , Austria. When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year. In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 tons [sic, probably metric tonnes]. In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement. In 1998 Courtaulds
1050-606: A price cartel in Germany and to reduce its production of rayon. In 1925 I. G. Farben acquired a stake in VGF and Bemberg. The joint venture with I. G. Farben lasted until the latter closed its Hölken rayon plant in 1929. In 1925 Courtaulds and VGF founded a joint venture named Glanzstoff Courtaulds to build and operate a large viscose manufacturing facility in Cologne . In April 1928 Glanzstoff Courtaulds began artificial silk production in
1155-513: A privately held company based in Hong Kong , operates nine facilities that produce more than 120 million garments annually. Its products include lingerie, underwear, nightwear, swim and beachwear, formalwear and casualwear, jackets and coats, babywear and socks. [REDACTED] Media related to Courtaulds at Wikimedia Commons Rayon Rayon , also called viscose and commercialised in some countries as sabra silk or cactus silk ,
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#17328010180601260-491: A significant role in the development of Courtaulds from a rather sedate, man-made fibres producer to the world's largest textile manufacturer, a position the company attained in the mid-1970s. The economics department then influenced the early stages of the subsequent extensive restructuring of the company, a process that culminated in the demerging of its textile activities as a separately quoted company in March 1990. In 1962
1365-408: A soft, silky feel. They are sometimes identified by the trade name Modal. Modal is used alone or with other fibers (often cotton or spandex ) in clothing and household items like pajamas, underwear, bathrobes, towels, and bedsheets. Modal can be tumble-dried without damage. The fabric has been known to pill less than cotton due to fiber properties and lower surface friction. The trademarked Modal
1470-414: A solvent, N-methyl morpholine N-oxide (NMMO). The process starts with cellulose and involves dry jet-wet spinning. It was developed at the now defunct American Enka Company and Courtaulds Fibres. Lenzing's Tencel is an example of a lyocell fiber. Unlike the viscose process, the lycocell process does not use highly toxic carbon disulfide. "Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to
1575-424: A starting material. The use of woody sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was traditionally used on a larger scale than the other methods. On the other hand, the original viscose process generates large amounts of contaminated wastewater. Newer technologies use less water and have improved the quality of the wastewater. The raw material for viscose is primarily wood pulp (sometimes bamboo pulp ), which
1680-481: A tyre-corduroy using synthetic thread that the Ministry of German Basic and Raw Materials ordered on a large scale. However, they lost international market share and lost contact with foreign innovations as Nazi Germany became increasingly isolated in the period before World War II. In 1937 Stauss was asked by Hermann Göring 's Office for Raw Materials whether there were plans to nationalize VGF. VGF responded that it
1785-675: A version of the Despeissis process with the addition of a practical method for spinning the fiber. They filed the patent under the name of Dr. Hermann Pauly (1870–1950) so as not to alert their competitors. The patent was challenged but was upheld. Fremery and Urban moved their headquarters to Elberfeld , now a suburb of Wuppertal . Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken (VGF) was launched on 19 September 1899 with 2 million marks of capital. The Bergisch-Märkischen bank provided financing. The VGF rayon that began to be sold early in 1900 had relatively coarse yarns of 100–200 denier . Although VGF's product
1890-480: A wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not always insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates, although also making their "hand" (feel) cool and sometimes almost slimy to the touch. The durability and appearance retention of regular viscose rayons are low, especially when wet; also, rayon has the lowest elastic recovery of any fiber. However, HWM rayon (high-wet-modulus rayon)
1995-460: A year until 2015. In May 2006, Sara Lee sold Courtaulds Textiles (but not its pension debt) for an undisclosed sum. It was bought by a consortium led by PD Enterprise Limited, a private company based in Hong Kong. At the time, Courtaulds had about a thousand employees in the UK, of whom 300 were employed at a tights factory. Times Brenda Barnes commented that Sara Lee had effectively "given away"
2100-550: Is a semi-synthetic fiber , made from natural sources of regenerated cellulose , such as wood and related agricultural products. It has the same molecular structure as cellulose. Many types and grades of viscose fibers and films exist. Some imitate the feel and texture of natural fibers such as silk , wool , cotton , and linen . The types that resemble silk are often called artificial silk . It can be woven or knit to make textiles for clothing and other purposes. Rayon production involves solubilizing cellulose to allow turning
2205-408: Is also used as a solvent. The viscose process builds on the reaction of cellulose with a strong base, followed by treatment of that solution with carbon disulfide to give a xanthate derivative. The xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step. The viscose method can use wood as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require lignin -free cellulose as
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#17328010180602310-477: Is chemically converted into a soluble compound. It is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments, which are chemically solidified, resulting in fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Unless the chemicals are handled carefully, workers can be seriously harmed by the carbon disulfide used to manufacture most rayon. To prepare viscose, pulp is treated with aqueous sodium hydroxide (typically 16–19% by mass ) to form " alkali cellulose ", which has
2415-437: Is emitted per kilogram of rayon produced. Control technologies have enabled improved collection of carbon disulfide and reuse of it, resulting in a lower emissions of carbon disulfide. These have not always been implemented in places where it was not legally required and profitable. Carbon disulfide is volatile and is lost before the rayon gets to the consumer; the rayon itself is basically pure cellulose . Studies from
2520-597: Is made by a slightly different solvent recovery process, and is considered a different fiber by the US FTC. Tencel lyocell was first produced commercially by Courtaulds' Grimsby plant in England. The process, which dissolves cellulose without a chemical reaction, was developed by Courtaulds Research. Birla Cellulose is also a volume manufacturer of rayon. They have plants located in India , Indonesia and China . Accordis
2625-413: Is made by spinning beech-tree cellulose and is considered a more eco-friendly alternative to cotton, as the production process uses on average 10–20 times less water. In 2018, viscose fiber production in the world was approximately 5.8 million tons, and China was the largest producer with about 65% of total global production. Trade names are used within the rayon industry to label the type of rayon in
2730-576: Is much stronger and exhibits higher durability and appearance retention. Recommended care for regular viscose rayon is dry-cleaning only. HWM rayon can be machine-washed. Regular rayon has lengthwise lines called striations and its cross-section is an indented circular shape. The cross-sections of HWM and cupra rayon are rounder. Filament rayon yarns vary from 80 to 980 filaments per yarn and vary in size from 40 to 5000 denier . Staple fibers range from 1.5 to 15 denier and are mechanically or chemically crimped. Rayon fibers are naturally very bright, but
2835-401: Is produced from the ripened solutions by treatment with a mineral acid, such as sulfuric acid . In this step, the xanthate groups are hydrolyzed to regenerate cellulose and carbon disulfide: Aside from regenerated cellulose, acidification gives hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), sulfur, and carbon disulfide. The thread made from the regenerated cellulose is washed to remove residual acid. The sulfur
2940-475: Is stretched as it is made, aligning the molecules along the fibers. Two forms are available: "polynosics" and "high wet modulus" (HWM). High-wet-modulus rayon is a modified version of viscose that is stronger when wet. It can be mercerized like cotton. HWM rayons are also known as "polynosic". Polynosic fibers are dimensionally stable and do not shrink or get pulled out of shape when wet like many rayons. They are also wear-resistant and strong while maintaining
3045-403: Is then removed by the addition of sodium sulfide solution, and impurities are oxidized by bleaching with sodium hypochlorite solution or hydrogen peroxide solution. Production begins with processed cellulose obtained from wood pulp and plant fibers. The cellulose content in the pulp should be around 87–97%. The steps: The lyocell process relies on dissolution of cellulose products in
3150-544: The Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabriken AG in Oberbruch (near Aachen ). Improvement by J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk. English chemist Charles Frederick Cross and his collaborators, Edward John Bevan and Clayton Beadle, patented their artificial silk in 1894. They named it "viscose" because its production involved the intermediacy of
3255-422: The firebrat —can eat rayon, but damage was found to be minor, potentially due to the heavy, slick texture of the tested rayon. Another study states that "artificial silk [...] [was] readily eaten" by the grey silverfish . A 2014 ocean survey found that rayon contributed to 56.9% of the total fibers found in deep ocean areas, the rest being polyester , polyamides , acetate and acrylic . A 2016 study found
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3360-463: The 1800s). Data on these additional risks came out in the 1960s. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent publication of this data in the UK. Courtaulds was one of the earliest companies in the UK to establish an economics department. In the three decades following World War II that department made notable contributions to the understanding of investment appraisal and the formulation of British, and later European, trade policy. The function also played
3465-662: The 1930s show that 30% of American rayon workers experienced significant health impacts due to carbon disulfide exposure. Courtaulds worked hard to prevent this information being published in Britain. During the Second World War , political prisoners in Nazi Germany were made to work in appalling conditions at the Phrix rayon factory in Krefeld . Nazis used forced labour to produce rayon across occupied Europe. In
3570-703: The 1930s. Wishing to reduce their dependence on natural silk, in 1904 Courtaulds acquired the Cross and Bevan 's patents to the viscose process for manufacturing artificial silk or rayon from dissolving pulp . They set up the first factory to produce it in Coventry UK in 1905. The early yarns were first woven into fabrics at the Halstead Mill in Essex in March 1906, but the process remained troublesome until further inventions improved yarn strength. However, in
3675-512: The 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing. The fibre was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100 kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production was increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25 ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the Grimsby, UK, pilot plant . The process
3780-635: The AKU supervisory board in 1969. In 1969 AKU merged with the Dutch company Koninklijke Zout Organon (KZO), a manufacturer of coatings, drugs and detergents, to form a new company named Akzo. The fiber business continued to operate as Enka Glanzstoff, renamed Enka in 1977 and Akzo Fibers in 1988. During the 1970s revenue from fiber was reduced from 50% to 30%, but Akzo was barely profitable. Akzo sold its US fiber business to BASF in 1985 to obtain funds for purchase of various small companies, mostly American, making chemicals, coatings and pharmaceuticals. Akzo merged with
3885-571: The CTA—later merged into Rhone Poulenc in France, and Snia Viscose in Italy). Courtaulds' activities in continental Europe consisted in a wholly owned, one-factory viscose fibre business employing some 3,000 people in France, a 50% share in a similar business in Germany (of which the other 50% was owned by VGF, the major competitor), and a minority shareholding which controlled 20% of the voting capital in
3990-593: The Contessa lingerie chain and McIlroys had been sold by 1995. In 2000, the American-based Sara Lee acquired Courtaulds Textiles in a hostile takeover for £150million. "Courtaulds Textile" remained as a division of Sara Lee, unlike the chemical merger, which saw "Courtaulds" disappear into Akzo Nobel . In the early 2000s, many jobs and factories were eliminated, especially in the UK, where manufacturing costs were higher. Marks and Spencer
4095-474: The Dutch group, four from the German group and one neutral member. Enka remained technogically behind the German facilities, and was relatively under-equipped. The German plants accounted for the bulk of AKU's production, and made 60% of the viscose in Germany in the early 1930s. VGF had five members of the seven-person management committee. Enka competed with Courtaulds with a factory in Britain established before
4200-534: The Dutch members. Ernst Hellmut Vits (1903–70) joined VGF in 1940 and was CEO and chairman of the executive board for the next thirty years. During World War II (1939–45) the Glanzstoff Courtaulds plant continued full production. From 1940 Jewish forced laborers from Cologne and the surroundings worked at the factory. They were deported to Minsk in July 1942. The factory also employed workers from
4305-682: The Elizabethton plants, although it chose not to seize the assets since they were partly owned by the Dutch. After the war the Stettin plant, now in Poland, became property of the Polish state. The Glanzstoff Courtaulds factory suffered only minor bomb damage during the war, and quickly resumed full production after the war ended. VGF had fallen behind its American competitors, and depended on American "development aid" to recover. In 1947 AKU ceded all
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4410-583: The French Comptoir des Textiles Artificiels dominated the rayon market. Courtaulds became concerned about competition from VGF after the purchase of the Donnersmarck viscose plant, and initiated discussions on ways to avoid harmful competition. VGF and Courtaulds headed a European rayon cartel formed in 1911. Under the 1911 agreements the companies gained domestic monopolies, shared the basic patents and agreed to share future advances made by any of
4515-608: The French chemist Louis Henri Despeissis invented the cuprammonium process for spinning fibers from cotton dissolved in Schweizer's reagent . Despeissis died in 1892 and his patent was not renewed. Max Fremery (1859–1932), a German chemist, and Johann Urban (1863–1940), an Austrian engineer, were manufacturing lamp filaments in Oberbruch near Aachen in 1891 using cotton and Schweizer's reagent. Fremery and Urban decided to start making artificial silk ( Glanzstoff ), and patented
4620-610: The Italian firm Snia Viscosa, also primarily a viscose fibre producer. This activity expanded until the 1960s, when these products were replaced by newer developments. In 1964 Courtaulds acquired Fine Spinners and Doublers for £14 million and the Lancashire Cotton Corporation for £22 million. Carbon disulfide , used in rayon production, increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes in rayon workers (among other health risks, some of them known since
4725-492: The Lyocell process became Lenzing property after the demise of Courtaulds Plc in 1998. The lyocell process does not use carbon disulfide. By the late 1980s, the manufacture of clothing was quickly moving to South East Asia and China . Courtaulds had closed many of its UK factories and moved production to new Asian sites. Further, its main profit was coming from its fibre and chemicals businesses, which were being held back by
4830-584: The Swedish Nobel Group in 1996 to form what is now AkzoNobel in a complex process in which parts of the companies were divested or shut down, and a major reorganization was implemented. In 1998 Akzo-Nobel bought Courtaulds. The fiber divisions of the two companies were combined, and in 1999 spun off as a new company named Acordis Industrial Fibers. On 3 April 2001 Acordis closed its rayon plant in Mobile, Alabama . The CEO noted that rayon consumption
4935-542: The Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Acordis banner, then sold them off to private equity ( CVC Capital Partners ). In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG , who combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. At this time "Tencel" production was at 80,000 tonnes/year. In September 2000, Courtaulds Fibers Inc. was found guilty of negligence for polluting
5040-577: The US in 1910. The name "rayon" was adopted in 1924 , with "viscose" being used for the viscous organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane . In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as "viscose", which has been ruled an acceptable alternative term for rayon by the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Rayon was produced only as a filament fiber until the 1930s, when methods were developed to utilize "broken waste rayon" as staple fiber. Manufacturers' search for
5145-600: The US market in competition with Courtaulds. J. P. Bemberg and VGF organized the American Bemberg Corporation in 1925, and began making rayon using the cuprammonium process in October 1926 at a newly built facility near Elizabethton, Tennessee , nine miles from Johnson City, Tennessee . In the fall of 1928 VGF opened a viscose factory nearby. This was operated by the VGF subsidiary North American Rayon. By 1929 Bemberg and VGF had about 5,000 employees in
5250-784: The US property of VGF to the OAP, including physical assets, working capital, patents and trademarks. The properties were sold to Beaunit Mills of New York in December 1948. Steef van Schaik (1888–1968), who had served in various senior management positions in Enka and AKU from 1919, and was Dutch minister of Transport of Energy from 25 June 1945 to 2 July 1946, was CEO of AKU from 1 August 1948 to 1 July 1954. AKU began to produce Cordenka rayon tire yarns in Arnhem in 1948. Enka retained ownership of American Enka, and in 1953 still held 56% of shares, although
5355-485: The United States. That year the company opened a new perlon fiber facility. In 1953 VGF had a workforce of 10,840 in Germany. In 1957 VGF reported sales of 383 million DM. In 1960 there were 17 registered companies in the AKU group in eight countries, including VGF. By 1965 sales were 1,374 million DM, and the company had 29,000 employees. However, the company struggled to make new commercial synthetic fibers, handicapped by lack of technical capability in polymers . In 1962
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#17328010180605460-468: The United States. The city of Elizabethton provided tax concessions and favorable rates for the large amounts of water used in rayon production. There were ongoing labor problems, starting with a strike in March 1929, but the plants operated profitably throughout the Great Depression . As of 1929 VGF had a workforce of 13,400 in Germany, and was chaired by Fritz Blüthgen. Although thriving, VGF
5565-459: The addition of delustering pigments cuts down on this natural brightness. The physical properties of rayon remained unchanged until the development of high-tenacity rayon in the 1940s. Further research and development led to high-wet-modulus rayon (HWM rayon) in the 1950s. Research in the UK was centred on the government-funded British Rayon Research Association . High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice
5670-621: The aerospace business has annual sales of approximately $ US240 million, employs 1,200 people. In the US it manufactures sealants in Glendale, California, US and Shildon , England; coatings and sealants in Mojave, California, US; glazing sealants at Gloucester City, New Jersey, US; and also coatings at Gonfreville, France. The business also operates 14 application-support centres in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. After its demerger, Courtaulds Textiles sold off its retail businesses;
5775-590: The amount of production in Germany. AKU cut back production in the Dutch factories in Ede and Arnhem, and the Deutsche Bank helped the VGF interests to buy up Dutch shares. The company gained from government-generated demand for its products, and from the cotton and wool import restrictions implemented in the 1934 New Plan. By 1934 Glanzstoff Courtaulds was employing 3,000 men and women. VGF increased production by 600% from 1933 to 1941. The company made rayon and also
5880-474: The approximate formula [C 6 H 9 O 4 −ONa] n . This material is allowed to depolymerize to an extent. The rate of depolymerization (ripening or maturing) depends on temperature and is affected by the presence of various inorganic additives, such as metal oxides and hydroxides. Air also affects the ripening process, since oxygen causes depolymerization. The alkali cellulose is then treated with carbon disulfide to form sodium cellulose xanthate : Rayon fiber
5985-505: The books. Benrath in turn attacked the Deutsche Bank executive and AKU supervisory board member Oscar Schlitter. Benrath wrote to another Deutsche Bank executive, Emil Georg von Stauss (1877–1942), "We live in a New Germany in which – thank the Lord – the honor of the individual is protected by a strong hand. I too rely on this protection and I am sure that I will come into my rights." Benrath and Springorum had to resign from AKU, while Schlitter
6090-447: The chemical producer BASF began to explore the possibility of forward integration in fiber manufacturing. Carl Wurster (1900–74) of BASF entered into discussions on close cooperation in manufacturing fiber with Ernst Hellmut Vits and Hermann Josef Abs. BASF wanted to purchase a 25% share of VGF, obtain exclusive supply contracts and undertake joint research into raw materials and synthetic fibers. The VGF executives were "sympathetic" to
6195-408: The chemist Edmund Thiele (1867–1927) to make cuprammonium rayon with equally fine filaments to the artificial silk of Hilaire de Chardonnet (1839–1924),and with better physical properties. The VGF product was not competitive. Although Thiele had applied for a patent on his process, a German court ruled on 4 May 1907 that it had been anticipated by the "Pauly" patent. For some time VGF, Courtaulds and
6300-502: The company closed a viscose plant in Calais , France, allowing its other plants to boost output to 93% capacity, compared with an industry average of 75%. The share price doubled in the first three years following the demerger. CEO Sipko Huismans had focused the company on rationalisation and cost cutting, saying "We have to cut costs. We can't count on sales growth to pay us more or to allow us to buy more of our favorite things." In 1993
6405-653: The company employed 23,000 and had £2 billion in annual revenue, with 30% of revenue from the United States, 40% from Europe and 15% from Asia-Pacific. Seeking to expand its business, specifically in Asia-Pacific, Courtaulds plc delivered part of its development in joint ventures, particularly with Akzo Nobel . It sought to merge with Akzo-Nobel, which the EU approved subject to the sale of Courtauld's aerospace business. In 1998 it merged with competitor Akzo Nobel . The name "Courtaulds" disappeared. Akzo Nobel combined
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#17328010180606510-666: The company until just before he died in March 1881. His great-nephew Samuel Courtauld (1876–1947) became chairman of the Courtauld company in 1921 but is chiefly remembered today as the founder of the Courtauld Institute of Art in London . William Julien Courtauld was also a benefactor of the arts: he gave artworks to the Essex County Council chamber at Chelmsford and the town hall at Braintree in
6615-555: The concept, but required the consent of their main shareholder, the AKU Group of the Netherlands. Negotiations continued until mid-1974, but AKU would not grant BASF any stake. The two companies did agree to extend chemical supply contracts until 1980, and to discuss any plans by BASF to enter fiber manufacturing or by VGF to start making chemicals. When BASF purchased the rayon manufacturer Phrix in 1967, VGF protested that "BASF
6720-467: The decade 1969 to 1979, American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process. The operating name for the fibre inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through pilot plant scale before the work was stopped. The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated (the holding company of Akzo). In
6825-660: The environment outside its plant in Axis, Alabama , US with carbon disulfide . 1991 emissions were more than double those of the nine other plants in Alabama combined, and made minimal improvements to abide by the 1990 amendments to the United States' Clean Air Act . In Europe, Courtaulds had taken much more stringent emissions-reduction measures. In October 2000, PPG Industries announced it had agreed to buy Courtaulds Aerospace for $ US512.5 million. Based in Glendale, California , US
6930-522: The fibers into required form. Three common solubilization methods are: French scientist and industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet (1838–1924) invented the first artificial textile fiber, artificial silk . Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer (1818–1860) discovered that cellulose dissolved in tetraamminecopper dihydroxide . Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897. Production of cuprammonium rayon for textiles started in 1899 in
7035-581: The firm and cut output drastically. The foreign intervention was seen as humiliating by the fascists. In Europe Courtaulds expanded its cellulosics business both directly and in joint ventures , including British Cellophane . In 1945 Courtaulds remained one of the four groups which dominated the man-made fibre industry in Europe (counting the German VGF and the Dutch AKU as one group, and including also
7140-437: The first in Germany to use the viscose process invented by Courtaulds in Britain. VGF quickly expanded viscose production. Around 1911 VGF began to invest in J. P. Bemberg , a cloth dying and finishing company that had been experimenting with a version of the cuprammonium process, and encouraged Bemberg to focus on producing yarns for which that process was suitable. Bemberg was using the "stretch-spinning" process invented by
7245-545: The health of people living near rayon plants and their livestock. Rates of disability in modern factories (mainly in China, Indonesia, and India) are unknown. This has raised ethical concerns over viscose rayon production. As of 2016 , production facilities located in developing countries generally do not provide environmental or worker safety data. Most global carbon disulfide emissions come from rayon production, as of 2008. As of 2004 , about 250 g of carbon disulfide
7350-553: The inter-war period VGF was the largest rayon producer in continental Europe. However, competition developed from companies in the United States, the Netherlands and Italy. VGF steadily increased its holdings in Bemberg and gained full control in 1920. In 1922 VGF invested in a new Japanese firm in partnership with Shitagau Noguchi (1873–1944) and Asahi Chemicals. The technology was licensed under conditions that prevented competition in VGF's home market, and ensured that VGF would receive
7455-461: The interwar era, Courtaulds, along with its domestic rival, British Celanese , both benefitted from tariff protection extended to the rayon industry by the Finance Act of 1925. In 1927–28 Courtaulds and Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken (VGF) gained control of the Italian rayon manufacturer SNIA Viscosa from Riccardo Gualino . A German director of VGF, Karl Scherer, replaced Gualino as head of
7560-551: The labor force increased to 6.7 times the initial level, and production increased to 16.3 times the initial level. VGF was profitable throughout the period before World War I. Production rose from 86 tons in 1902 to 820 tons in 1912. In 1906 VGF opened a facility in Sankt Pölten , Austria, and in 1908 opened a plant in Flint , Wales. It was clear by 1909–10 that viscose, with its cheaper raw materials and simpler spinning process,
7665-401: The largest lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year. Rayon is produced by dissolving cellulose, then converting this solution back to insoluble fibrous cellulose. Various processes have been developed for this regeneration. The most common methods for creating rayon are the cuprammonium method, the viscose method, and the lyocell process. The first two methods have been practiced for more than
7770-449: The largest producers of rayon in the world, and Asia Pacific Rayon (APR) of the country has an annual production capacity of 0.24 million tons. The biodegradability of various fibers in soil burial and sewage sludge was evaluated by Korean researchers. Rayon was found to be more biodegradable than cotton, and cotton more than acetate . The more water-repellent the rayon-based fabric, the more slowly it will decompose. Silverfish —like
7875-468: The lyocell process for making cellulose fibers. As of 2018 , the lyocell process is not widely used, because it is still more expensive than the viscose process. Rayon is a versatile fiber and is widely claimed to have the same comfort properties as natural fibers, although the drape and slipperiness of rayon textiles are often more like nylon . It can imitate the feel and texture of silk , wool , cotton , and linen . The fibers are easily dyed in
7980-412: The man-made cellulosics manufacturers globally on the same scoring platform. The scoring from the 2020 report scores all such manufacturers on a scale of 35, the highest scores having been achieved by Birla Cellulose (33) and Lenzing (30.5). Carbon disulfide is highly toxic . It is well documented to have seriously harmed the health of rayon workers in developed countries, and emissions may also harm
8085-534: The management was mostly American. That year American Enka began to produce nylon at a new plant in Asheville. A 1957 article in Business Week said Enka "believes its technical and other information exchange with American Enka is more important than the profit from ownership of Enka shares." In 1950 VGF was the largest German manufacturer of artificial fibers, with a management team strongly oriented towards
8190-414: The members of the cartel. The companies planned to form a consortium that would to coordinate sales, set prices and production volumes, and share profits in each region, but were unable to agree on a formal contract before the outbreak of World War I (1914–18). During the war VGF focused on producing the staple fiber later called rayon, which was spun together with cotton. The German government, faced with
8295-591: The merger. After the merger AKU continued to operate in Britain despite strong protests from Courtaulds and lengthy negotiations to try to resolve the issue. AKU also had subsidiaries in Italy, Czechoslovakia and Austria. After the 1929 merger AKU opened a viscose plant in Asheville, North Carolina . The plant was operated by the American Enka Company , which had been organized in 1928. The company became
8400-420: The north of Cologne. In 1927 Courtaulds and VGF combined to buy a controlling interest in the Italian manufacturer SNIA Viscosa . A German director of VGF, Karl Scherer, replaced the company founder Riccardo Gualino (1879–1964) as head of the firm and cut output drastically. In April 1925 Fritz Blüthgen of VGF, suggested a joint venture with Courtaulds in the United States. When Courtaulds declined, VGF entered
8505-606: The occupied territories in the east as well as French prisoners of war, workers from France, the Netherlands and Belgium, and in August 1944 Italian prisoners of war (most of them refused to cooperate). With the Allied advance to the Rhine in 1944 many workers were assigned to defense works, but the factory still employed 900 German and 400 foreign workers in early 1945. Early in 1942 the US Office of Alien Property (OAP) seized control of
8610-466: The product. Viscose rayon was first produced in Coventry, England in 1905 by Courtaulds. Bemberg is a trade name for cuprammonium rayon developed by J. P. Bemberg . Bemberg performs much like viscose but has a smaller diameter and comes closest to silk in feel. Bemberg is now only produced in Japan. The fibers are finer than viscose rayon. Modal and Tencel are widely used forms of rayon produced by Lenzing AG . Tencel, generic name lyocell ,
8715-607: The rights to any technical advances made in Japan. VGF built a factory in Obernburg in 1924. The European rayon price cartel was formed again after 1925. The arrangement was a form of cartel in which rayon patents and technology were shared between the partners. VGF, Courtaulds and the Comptoir shared technical advances until shortly before World War II (1939–45). VGF initiated lawsuits against IG Farben over rayon technology, but dropped them in 1924–25 when IG Farben agreed to join
8820-435: The strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord. Industrial applications of rayon emerged around 1935. Substituting cotton fiber in tires and belts, industrial types of rayon developed a totally different set of properties, amongst which tensile strength and elastic modulus were paramount. Modal is a genericized trademark of Lenzing AG , used for (viscose) rayon which
8925-555: The textiles business. In 1990, Courtaulds plc demerged itself into two parts: In 1990, the company began pilot production of Tencel , a brand of lyocell rayon. The production of lyocell does not use carbon disulfide , but is more expensive than viscose rayon. In January 1993, the Tencel plant in Mobile, Alabama , US reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. In 1991,
9030-570: The third largest rayon manufacturer in the United States after Courtaulds and DuPont . In 1930 VGF used lawsuits as a bargaining counter with Châtillon S.p.A. to ensure that imports of rayon from Italy to Germany were controlled. In the 1930s VGF was deeply in debt to Enka, a situation that worsened as VGF bonds issued and sold in the US were bought up by the Dutch. The percentage of German ownership in AKU steadily declined. A bitter internal management dispute blew up in 1933 when two VGF executives, Carl Benrath and Willi Springorum, were accused of rigging
9135-580: The unit. In 2007, Courtaulds Textiles employed around 20,000 people across 16 countries in Europe, North America and Asia. It had moved most of its manufacturing jobs offshore, most of which was divested in joint ventures for flexibility. One of these joint venture was Slimline (Pvt) Ltd, Sri Lanka 's largest apparel manufacturer, employing 1450 people and with a turnover of 25 million British pounds, and Courtaulds Clothing Lanka, which employed 700 people to make men's underwear. The whole company had an annual turnover exceeding £1billion. PD Enterprise Ltd.,
9240-486: The war with American assistance. In 1969 AKU merged with the Dutch manufacturer KZO to form AKZO, now part of AkzoNobel . Successor companies formed during various divestitures, mergers and acquisitions continue to be active in various related industries. In 1857 the Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer (1818–60) found that cotton could be dissolved in a solution of copper salts and ammonia and then regenerated. In 1890
9345-599: Was a United Kingdom -based manufacturer of fabric , clothing , artificial fibres , and chemicals. It was established in 1794 and became the world's leading man-made fibre production company before being broken up in 1990 into Courtaulds plc and Courtaulds Textiles Ltd . The company was founded by George Courtauld and his cousin Peter Taylor (1790–1850) in 1794 as a silk , crepe and textile business at Pebmarsh in north Essex trading as George Courtauld & Co . In 1810, his American -born son Samuel Courtauld
9450-406: Was a major manufacturer of cellulose-based fibers and yarns. Production facilities can be found throughout Europe, the U.S. and Brazil . Visil rayon and HOPE FR are flame retardant forms of viscose that have silica embedded in the fiber during manufacturing. North American Rayon Corporation of Tennessee produced viscose rayon until its closure in the year 2000. Indonesia is one of
9555-508: Was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel , which combined the Tencel division with other fibre divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners . In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG , which combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. It took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 were
9660-681: Was concentrated in the southeast. AKU had 16% of the world market for artificial fibers in 1939, with 31 plants. In May 1939 Göring, who had come to believe that Strauss had been bribed to support an anti-German position, forced all the German members of the AKU Delegates Committee to resign. They were replaced by four new members including Hermann Josef Abs (1901–94) of the Deutsche Bank and Baron Kurt von Schröder (1889–1966) of Bankhaus Stein, Cologne. There were plans to reinstate Benrath and others who had been forced out in 1933, but these were dropped in face of violent objections by
9765-576: Was deeply in debt. That year Oscar Schlitter (1868–1939) of the Deutsche Bank arranged for VGF to combine with Nederlandsche Kunstzijde (Enka). Enka was based in Arnhem , Netherlands. It had been founded in 1911. A new German-Dutch company was created, Algemene Kunstzijde Unie (AKU), through an exchange of shares. Enka, VGF and Bemberg remained distinct legal entities owned by AKU as a holding company. The AKU supervisory board had four members from
9870-544: Was economically superior to cuprammonium. In July 1911 the chairman of VGF, Hans Jordan, decided to pay 2 million marks for all the German patent rights for the viscose process and for the Donnersmarcks Kunstseide und Acetatwerke near Stettin . He planned to fully convert the Donnersmarcks plant to the viscose process. The company headed by Count Guido Henckel von Donnersmarck (1830–1916) had been
9975-442: Was enforced in 1941 as part of the negotiations which preceded Lend-Lease . Courtaulds was Canada 's only rayon manufacturer in the 1980s, and was criticized for polluting Cornwall, Ontario . By 1989 the company was dumping "an average of 12 million litres of water a day, loaded with acids, zinc, murky solid materials and other contaminants.... Tests in 1986 showed the company's waste killed healthy trout within five minutes." In
10080-520: Was female. By 1850, Courtauld employed over 2,000 people in his three silk mills, and he had recruited partners including (in 1828) his brother, George Courtauld II (1802–1861) and (in 1849) fellow Unitarian social reformer Peter Alfred Taylor (1819-1891 – son of Peter Taylor who died the following year). By this time, Courtauld was a wealthy man but was also suffering from deafness . He had planned to spend more time on his country estate Gosfield Hall near Halstead, but continued to play an active role in
10185-596: Was first commercialized at Courtaulds' rayon factories at Mobile, Alabama (1990 ), and at the Grimsby plant (1998) . In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. A second plant in Mobile was planned. By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons. Lenzing began
10290-518: Was in breach of contract with VGF in every way because of the Phrix acquisition." VGF was concerned that BASF would become a serious competitor in a market where it was already struggling with falling prices, and warned that it would now feel free to negotiate much more aggressively on the prices it was willing to pay for chemicals. In 1968 AKU merged with Glanzstoff, which had been producing "Cordenka" rayon tire yarns in Obernburg since 1938, and formed Enka Glanzstoff. Ernst Hellmut Vits became chairman of
10395-663: Was less versatile than rayon produced by the viscose process the scale of the operation allowed for reduced prices. Fremery and Urban, with the Alsatian textile chemist David Emil Bronnert (1868–1928), took out two more basic patents in 1900. In 1900, the first year of operation, profits were $ 15,480. The company set up two smaller plants in Alsace, and in 1903 started manufacturing in Givet , France. Profits were $ 422,000 by 1904 and continued to grow in following years. Between 1901 and 1911
10500-402: Was made the "neutral" delegate on the AKU supervisory board and Stauss was appointed to the board. Stauss helped the company through his contacts in government. The regime wanted to reduce reliance on imported fiber by increasing domestic manufacturing, and one Nazi Party expert on textiles proposed that AKU should be taken over by I.G. Farben, a true German company. AKU responded by increasing
10605-646: Was managing his own silk mill in Braintree, Essex . In 1818, George Courtauld returned to America , leaving Samuel Courtauld and Taylor to expand the business, now known as Courtauld & Taylor , by building further mills in Halstead and Bocking . In 1825 Courtauld installed a steam engine at the Bocking mill, and then installed power looms at Halstead. His mills, however, remained heavily dependent on young female workers – in 1838, over 92% of his workforce
10710-518: Was necessary for AKU to appear to be a Dutch company with mainly Dutch ownership so as to protect its American assets. In 1939 the two companies in Elizabethtown, Tennessee had about 4,600 employees, and American Enka near Asheville, North Carolina had 2,850. The American rayon industry benefited from protective tariffs and the fashionable short skirts, which created demand for smooth, sheer stockings. The European giants dominated production, which
10815-435: Was not performed due to the difficulty in distinguishing between natural and man-made cellulosic fibers using FTIR spectra. For several years, there have been concerns about links between rayon manufacturers and deforestation. As a result of these concerns, FSC and PEFC came on the same platform with CanopyPlanet to focus on these issues. CanopyPlanet subsequently started publishing a yearly Hot Button report, which puts all
10920-535: Was squeezing its suppliers for lower costs. In 2007, 40% of Courtauld's turnover was from sales to Marks & Spencer (though sales had declined rapidly, as of 2006 ). In February 2005, Brenda C. Barnes became the chairman and CEO of Sara Lee, and tried to sell the Courtaulds Textile division. In April 2006, the UK pension regulator required Sara Lee to increase payments into Courtaulds' $ 483 million (£260 million) pension deficit from £20m to £32m
11025-491: Was steadily declining in the US due to growing imports of yarns, fabrics and finished garments, and had dropped from 390 million pounds in 1990 to around 190 million pounds in 2000. In 2002 the former Enka Glanzstoff operations became independent of Acordis, operating as Cordenka GmbH with headquarters in Obernburg. Cordenka continued to expand in Germany and Poland over the following years. Courtaulds Courtaulds
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