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66-719: The All-Channel Receiver Act provides that the Federal Communications Commission shall "have authority to require that apparatus designed to receive television pictures broadcast simultaneously with sound be capable of adequately receiving all frequencies allocated by the Commission to television broadcasting." Under authority provided by the All Channel Receiver Act, the FCC adopted a number of technical standards to increase parity between

132-401: A {\displaystyle N_{a}} , the amplified signal S i G {\displaystyle S_{i}G} and the amplified input noise N i G {\displaystyle N_{i}G} , Substituting the output SNR to the noise factor definition, In cascaded systems N i {\displaystyle N_{i}} does not refer to

198-426: A Poisson distribution of detected photons. If, during a detection interval the expectation value of detected photons is n then the variance is also n and one obtains SNR pnf,in = n / n = n . Behind an optical amplifier with power gain G there will be a mean of Gn detectable signal photons. In the limit of large n the variance of photons is Gn (2 n sp ( G -1)+1) where n sp

264-556: A coherent optical I&Q receiver. In these, power of the output signal is proportional to the square of an optical field amplitude because they are linear in amplitude. They pass both quadratures. For an optical amplifier it holds F o,IQ = n sp (1-1/ G )+1/ G ≥ 1. Quantity n sp (1-1/ G ) is the input-referred number of added noise photons per mode. F o,IQ and F pnf can easily be converted into each other. For large G it holds F o,IQ = F pnf /2 or, when expressed in dB, F o,IQ

330-428: A dispute than the injunction. In the state of New South Wales , a court may grant an apprehended violence order (AVO) to a person who fears violence, harassment, abuse, or stalking . The order prohibits the defendant from assaulting, harassing, threatening, stalking, or intimidating the person seeking the order. Other conditions may be included, such as a prohibition against contacting the person or attempting to find

396-470: A drop that was only partially compensated for by field upgrades or the availability of UHF converters for separate purchase. By 1961, with 83 commercial UHF stations still on-air, the number of new TVs capable of receiving UHF as well as VHF channels had fallen to a record low of 5.5% with a small number of viable stations situated in localities where a lack of available VHF frequencies had forced early expansion onto UHF. While public educational television

462-621: A federal court in the 1920s effectively barred the United Mine Workers of America from talking to workers who had signed yellow dog contracts with their employers. Unable to limit what they called "government by injunction" in the courts, labor and its allies persuaded the United States Congress in 1932 to pass the Norris-LaGuardia Act , which imposed so many procedural and substantive limits on

528-530: A net cost on consumers, thus obviating the role of antitrust enforcement. Interim injunctions or interim orders are granted as a means of providing interim relief while a case is being heard, to prevent actions being implemented which potentially may be barred by a final ruling. In England and Wales, injunctions whose existence and details may not be legally reported, in addition to facts or allegations which may not be disclosed, have been issued; they have been informally dubbed "super-injunctions". An example

594-484: A party seeks injunctive relief to enforce the grievance arbitration provisions of a collective bargaining agreement . Second, injunctions were crucial to the second half of the twentieth century in the desegregation of American schools. Federal courts gave injunctions that carried out the command of Brown v Board of Education to integrate public schools in the United States, and at times courts took over

660-425: A physical temperature T , the noise temperature is T e = ( L − 1) T , giving a noise factor If several devices are cascaded, the total noise factor can be found with Friis' formula : where F n is the noise factor for the n -th device, and G n is the power gain (linear, not in dB) of the n -th device. The first amplifier in a chain usually has the most significant effect on

726-486: A power spectral density, or energy per mode, equal to kT , where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature. One mode has two quadratures, i.e. the amplitudes of cos ω t {\displaystyle \mathrm {\omega } t} and sin ω t {\displaystyle \mathrm {\omega } t} oscillations of voltages, currents or fields. However, there

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792-497: A preliminary injunction tend to be the same as for a permanent injunction, with the additional requirement that the party asking for the injunction is likely to succeed on the merits. Permanent injunctions are issued after trial. Different federal and state courts sometimes have slightly different requirements for obtaining a permanent injunction. The Supreme Court enumerated the traditional four-factor test in eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C. as: The balance of hardships inquiry

858-492: A proper motion to the court) if circumstances change in the future. These features of the injunction allow a court granting one to manage the behavior of the parties. That is the most important distinction between the injunction and another non-monetary remedy in American law, the declaratory judgment . Another way these two remedies are distinguished is that the declaratory judgment is sometimes available at an earlier point in

924-535: A simple load is equal to kTB , where k is the Boltzmann constant , T is the absolute temperature of the load (for example a resistor ), and B is the measurement bandwidth. This makes the noise figure a useful figure of merit for terrestrial systems, where the antenna effective temperature is usually near the standard 290 K. In this case, one receiver with a noise figure, say 2 dB better than another, will have an output signal-to-noise ratio that

990-701: A super-injunction but also including an order that the injunction must not be discussed with members of Parliament, journalists, or lawyers. One known hyper-injunction was obtained at the High Court in 2006, preventing its subject from saying that paint used in water tanks on passenger ships can break down and release potentially toxic chemicals. This example became public knowledge in Parliament under parliamentary privilege. By May 2011, Private Eye claimed to be aware of 53 super-injunctions and anonymised privacy injunctions, though Lord Neuberger's report into

1056-488: Is 3 dB less than F pnf . The ideal F o,IQ in dB equals 0 dB. This describes the known fact that the sensitivity of an ideal optical I&Q receiver is not improved by an ideal optical preamplifier. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from Federal Standard 1037C . General Services Administration . Archived from the original on 2022-01-22.  (in support of MIL-STD-188 ). Injunction An injunction

1122-488: Is a noise factor then its definition must be independent of measurement apparatus and frequency. Consider the signal "Power" in the sense of SNR pnf definition. Behind an amplifier it is proportional to G n . We may replace the photodiode by a thermal power meter, and measured photocurrent I by measured temperature change Δ θ {\displaystyle \mathrm {\Delta \theta } } . "Power", being proportional to I or P ,

1188-445: Is about 2 dB better than the other. However, in the case of satellite communications systems, where the receiver antenna is pointed out into cold space, the antenna effective temperature is often colder than 290 K. In these cases a 2 dB improvement in receiver noise figure will result in more than a 2 dB improvement in the output signal-to-noise ratio. For this reason, the related figure of effective noise temperature

1254-509: Is also noise in optical systems. In these, the sources have no fundamental noise. Instead the energy quantization causes notable shot noise in the detector. In an optical receiver which can output one available mode or two available quadratures this corresponds to a noise power spectral density, or energy per mode, of hf where h is the Planck constant and f is the optical frequency. In an optical receiver with only one available quadrature

1320-475: Is also proportional to ( Δ θ ) {\displaystyle (\mathrm {\Delta \theta } )} . Thermal power meters can be built at all frequencies. Hence it is possible to lower the frequency from optical (say 200 THz) to electrical (say 200 MHz). Still there, "Power" must be proportional to ( Δ θ ) {\displaystyle (\mathrm {\Delta \theta } )} or P . Electrical power P

1386-475: Is also sometimes called the "undue hardship defense". A stay pending appeal is a mechanism allowing a losing party to delay enforcement of an injunction while appeal is pending after final judgment has been granted by a lower court. The DOJ and the FTC have investigated patent holders in the United States for seeking preliminary injunctions against accused infringers of standard-essential patents , or patents that

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1452-504: Is an equitable remedy in the form of a special court order that compels a party to do or refrain from specific acts. "When a court employs the extraordinary remedy of injunction, it directs the conduct of a party, and does so with the backing of its full coercive powers ." A party that fails to comply with an injunction faces criminal or civil penalties , including possible monetary sanctions and even imprisonment . They can also be charged with contempt of court . The injunction

1518-594: Is an equitable remedy, that is, a remedy that originated in the English courts of equity . Like other equitable remedies, it has traditionally been given when a wrong cannot be effectively remedied by an award of money damages. (The doctrine that reflects this is the requirement that an injunction can be given only when there is "no adequate remedy at law.") Injunctions are intended to make whole again someone whose rights have been violated. Nevertheless, when deciding whether to grant an injunction, courts also take into account

1584-409: Is called a "mandatory injunction." An injunction that prohibits conduct is called a "prohibitory injunction." Many injunctions are both—that is, they have both mandatory and prohibitory components, because they require some conduct and forbid other conduct. When an injunction is given, it can be enforced with equitable enforcement mechanisms such as contempt. It can also be modified or dissolved (upon

1650-458: Is defined as the ratio of the output noise power of a device to the portion thereof attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard noise temperature T 0 (usually 290  K ). The noise factor is thus the ratio of actual output noise to that which would remain if the device itself did not introduce noise, which is equivalent to the ratio of input SNR to output SNR. The noise factor and noise figure are related, with

1716-522: Is dominated by coherent optical I&Q receivers but F pnf does not describe the SNR degradation observed in these. Another optical noise figure F ase for a mplified s pontaneous e mission has been defined. But the noise factor F ase is not the SNR degradation factor in any optical receiver. All the above conflicts are resolved by the optical in-phase and quadrature noise factor and figure F o,IQ . It can be measured using

1782-470: Is likely to succeed on the merits, that he is likely to suffer severe harm in the absence of preliminary relief, and that an injunction is in the public interest. In Turkish law, interim injunction is an extraordinary remedy that is never awarded as of right. In each case, courts balance the competing claims of injury and consider the likely hardship on the defendant. Injunctions have been especially important at two moments in American history. First, in

1848-401: Is proportional to optical power P . P is proportional to squares of a field amplitude (electric or magnetic). So, the receiver is nonlinear in amplitude. The "Power" needed for SNR pnf calculation is proportional to the 4th power of the signal amplitude. But for F e in the electrical domain the power is proportional to the square of the signal amplitude. If SNR pnf

1914-450: Is proportional to the square U of voltage U . But "Power" is proportional to U . These implications are in obvious conflict with ~150 years of physics. They are compelling consequence of calling F pnf a noise factor, or noise figure when expressed in dB. At any given electrical frequency, noise occurs in both quadratures, i.e. in phase (I) and in quadrature (Q) with the signal. Both these quadratures are available behind

1980-409: Is the spontaneous emission factor. One obtains SNR pnf,out = G n /( Gn (2 n sp ( G -1)+1)) = n /(2 n sp (1-1/ G )+1/ G ) . Resulting optical noise factor is F pnf = SNR pnf,in / SNR pnf,out = 2 n sp (1-1/ G )+1/ G . F pnf is in conceptual conflict with the e lectrical noise factor, which is now called F e : Photocurrent I

2046-401: Is therefore often used instead of the noise figure for characterizing satellite-communication receivers and low-noise amplifiers . In heterodyne systems, output noise power includes spurious contributions from image- frequency transformation, but the portion attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard noise temperature includes only that which appears in the output via

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2112-406: Is usually to preserve the status quo until the court is able to decide the case. A special kind of injunction that may be issued before trial is called a "temporary restraining order" or TRO. A TRO may be issued without notice to the other party or a hearing. A TRO will be given only for a short period of time before a court can schedule a hearing at which the restrained person may appear and contest

2178-571: The de facto standard, the vast majority of stations do not transmit a mobile-TV signal, which will leave viewers with these devices unable to receive most broadcasts. Because LPTV stations have already had their limited financial resources drained by having to buy and install new digital equipment, it is unlikely that any LPTV stations will be seen on mobile TV because of this waiver, which also applies to other companies. It has been proposed in 2009 to require HD Radio receivers to be included in all satellite radio ( SDARS ) receivers, in response to

2244-565: The U.S. House as the Radio All Digital Channel Receiver Act in 2008 but was not passed into law. Noise figure Noise figure (NF) and noise factor ( F ) are figures of merit that indicate degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that is caused by components in a signal chain . These figures of merit are used to evaluate the performance of an amplifier or a radio receiver, with lower values indicating better performance. The noise factor

2310-470: The monopoly created by the XM/Sirius merger . All three use proprietary systems, and there have been no considerations to require the inclusion of open standards like FMeXtra , DRM+ , DAB+ or DMB , which are compatible anywhere outside of the United States. A notice of inquiry (a predecessor to a full rulemaking proceeding) is before the FCC as docket 08-172. A bill had been submitted to

2376-533: The Supreme Court stated that the scope of federal injunctive relief is constrained by the limits on equitable remedies that existed in the English Court of Chancery around 1789. Injunctions in the United States tend to come in three main forms: temporary restraining orders, preliminary injunctions and permanent injunctions. For both temporary restraining orders and preliminary injunctions, the goal

2442-587: The U.S. after 1964 had built-in UHF tuners. By 1971, there would be more than 170 full-service UHF broadcast stations nationwide; the number of UHF stations would grow further to accommodate new television networks such as the Public Broadcasting Service (1970), Fox (1986), Univision (1986) and Telemundo (1987). Today, UHF TV stations outnumber their long-established VHF counterparts, with more stations switching to physical UHF channels after

2508-403: The UHF and VHF television services, including a 14 dB maximum UHF noise figure for television receivers. While the first U.S. commercially licensed UHF television stations signed on as early as 1952, the majority of the 165 UHF stations to begin telecasting between 1952 and 1959 did not survive. UHF local stations of the 1950s were limited by the range their signals could supposedly travel,

2574-707: The charges. In late March 2008, the Community Broadcasters Association filed a lawsuit in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia , seeking an injunction to halt the sale and distribution of DTV converter boxes , charging that their failure to include analog tuners or analog passthrough violates the All-Channel Receiver Act. Responding to CBA's actions, the FCC and NTIA urged manufacturers to include

2640-438: The digital TV transition of 2009. The act has most recently been used in 2005-2007 ( 47 CFR 15.115 and 47 CFR 15.117 ) to require TV manufacturers to include ATSC -T ( terrestrial TV ) tuners for digital television , in any TV set that includes an NTSC analog TV tuner . This requirement has been phased-in during the mid-2000s, starting with the largest TV sets. By early 2007, every device sold that

2706-576: The electrical amplifier. The same holds in an optical amplifier. But the direct detection photoreceiver needed for measurement of SNR pnf takes mainly the in-phase noise into account whereas quadrature noise can be neglected for high n . Also, the receiver outputs only one baseband signal, corresponding to quadrature. So, one quadrature or degree-of-freedom is lost. For an optical amplifier with large G it holds F pnf ≥ 2 whereas for an e lectrical amplifier it holds F e ≥ 1. Moreover, today's long-haul optical fiber communication

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2772-797: The feature voluntarily in all converter boxes, and manufacturers responded by releasing a new generation of models with the feature. In early May 2008, the D.C. district court denied the CBA petition without comment, effectively telling the association that it had not exhausted all its efforts, and that there was not enough merit to take the case to the courts. In July 2010, the FCC granted a waiver allowing Dell , LG , and Hauppauge to fail to include tuners for NTSC analog TV or standard ATSC digital TV in mobile television devices designed to receive ATSC-M/H signals. While all full-power stations have been forced to turn off their analog signals, and most low-power TV stations therefore have been forced to digital as

2838-488: The federal courts' power to issue injunctions that it effectively prohibited federal court from issuing injunctions in cases arising out of labor disputes. A number of states followed suit and enacted "Little Norris-LaGuardia Acts" that imposed similar limitations on state courts' powers. The courts have since recognized a limited exception to the Norris-LaGuardia Act's strict limitations in those cases in which

2904-460: The former being a unitless ratio and the latter being the logarithm of the noise factor, expressed in units of decibels (dB). The noise figure is the difference in decibel (dB) between the noise output of the actual receiver to the noise output of an "ideal" receiver with the same overall gain and bandwidth when the receivers are connected to matched sources at the standard noise temperature T 0 (usually 290 K). The noise power from

2970-413: The injunction was varied to permit reporting of the question. By long legal tradition, parliamentary proceedings may be reported without restriction. Parliamentary proceedings are covered by absolute privilege , but the reporting of those proceedings in newspapers is only covered by qualified privilege. Another example of the use of a super-injunction was in a libel case in which a plaintiff who claimed he

3036-924: The input and output signal-to-noise ratios respectively. The SNR quantities are unitless power ratios. Note that this specific definition is only valid for an input signal of which the noise is N i =kT 0 B . The noise figure NF is defined as the noise factor in units of decibels (dB): N F = 10 log 10 ⁡ ( F ) = 10 log 10 ⁡ ( S N R i S N R o ) = S N R i, dB − S N R o, dB {\displaystyle \mathrm {NF} =10\log _{10}(F)=10\log _{10}\left({\frac {\mathrm {SNR} _{\text{i}}}{\mathrm {SNR} _{\text{o}}}}\right)=\mathrm {SNR} _{\text{i, dB}}-\mathrm {SNR} _{\text{o, dB}}} where SNR i, dB and SNR o, dB are in units of (dB). These formulae are only valid when

3102-426: The input termination is at standard noise temperature T 0 = 290 K , although in practice small differences in temperature do not significantly affect the values. The noise factor of a device is related to its noise temperature T e : Attenuators have a noise factor F equal to their attenuation ratio L when their physical temperature equals T 0 . More generally, for an attenuator at

3168-432: The interests of non-parties (that is, the public interest). When deciding whether to give an injunction, and deciding what its scope should be, courts give special attention to questions of fairness and good faith. One manifestation of this is that injunctions are subject to equitable defenses, such as laches and unclean hands . Injunctions are given in many different kinds of cases. They can prohibit future violations of

3234-614: The lack of UHF tuners in most TV sets and difficulties in finding advertisers and TV network affiliations. Of the 82 new UHF TV stations in the United States broadcasting as of June 1954, only 24 remained on the air a year later. Fourth-network operators such as the DuMont Television Network , forced to expand using UHF affiliates due to a lack of available VHF channels, were not viable and soon folded. The fraction of new TV receivers that were factory-equipped with all-channel tuners dropped from 20% in 1953 to 9.0% by 1958,

3300-616: The late nineteenth and early twentieth century, federal courts used injunctions to break strikes by unions. For example, after the United States government successfully used an injunction to outlaw the Pullman boycott in 1894 in In re Debs , employers found that they could obtain federal court injunctions to ban strikes and organizing activities of all kinds by unions . These injunctions were often extremely broad; one injunction issued by

3366-462: The law, such as trespass to real property, infringement of a patent, or the violation of a constitutional right (e.g., the free exercise of religion). Or they can require the defendant to repair past violations of the law. An injunction can require someone to do something, like clean up an oil spill or remove a spite fence . Or it can prohibit someone from doing something, like using an illegally obtained trade secret. An injunction that requires conduct

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3432-770: The management of public schools in order to ensure compliance. (An injunction that puts a court in the position of taking over and administering an institution—such as a school, a prison, or a hospital—is often called a " structural injunction ".) Injunctions remain widely used to require government officials to comply with the Constitution, and they are also frequently used in private law disputes about intellectual property, real property, and contracts. Many state and federal statutes, including environmental statutes , civil rights statutes and employment-discrimination statutes , are enforced with injunctions. In Grupo Mexicano de Desarrollo, S.A. v. Alliance Bond Fund, Inc. (1999),

3498-502: The order. If the TRO is contested, the court must decide whether to issue a preliminary injunction. Temporary restraining orders are often, but not exclusively, given to prevent domestic violence, stalking, sexual assault, or harassment. Preliminary injunctions are given before trial. Because they are issued at an early stage, before the court has heard the evidence and made a decision in the case, they are more rarely given. The requirements for

3564-404: The output noise of the previous component. An input termination at the standard noise temperature is still assumed for the individual component. This means that the additional noise power added by each component is independent of the other components. The above describes noise in electrical systems. The optical noise figure is discussed in multiple sources. Electric sources generate noise with

3630-430: The patent holder must license on reasonable and non-discriminatory terms . There is an ongoing debate among legal and economic scholars with major implications for antitrust policy in the United States as well as in other countries over the statutory limits to the patent holder's right to seek and obtain injunctive relief against infringers of standard-essential patents. Citing concerns of the absence of competition facing

3696-511: The patent holder once its technology is locked-in to the standard , some scholars argue that the holder of a standard-essential patent should face antitrust liability when seeking an injunction against an implementer of a standard. Other scholars assert that patent holders are not contractually restrained from pursuing injunctions for standard-essential patent claims and that patent law is already capable of determining whether an injunction against an infringer of standard-essential patents will impose

3762-512: The person online. A court may issue the order if it believes a person has reasonable grounds for their fears or has no reasonable grounds for their fears. Non-compliance may result in the imposition of a fine, imprisonment, or both, and deportation. Interim injunctions are a provisional form of injunctive relief, which can compel a party to do something (mandatory injunction) or stop it from doing something (prohibitory injunction). A plaintiff seeking an interim injunction must establish that he

3828-429: The power gain G {\displaystyle G} of an amplifier. F = 1 + N a N i G {\displaystyle F=1+{\frac {N_{a}}{N_{i}G}}} From the definition of noise factor and assuming a system which has a noisy single stage amplifier. The signal to noise ratio of this amplifier would include its own output referred noise N

3894-408: The principal frequency transformation of the system and excludes that which appears via the image frequency transformation. The noise factor F of a system is defined as F = S N R i S N R o {\displaystyle F={\frac {\mathrm {SNR} _{\text{i}}}{\mathrm {SNR} _{\text{o}}}}} where SNR i and SNR o are

3960-465: The shot noise has a power spectral density, or energy per mode, of only hf /2 . In the 1990s, an optical noise figure has been defined. This has been called F pnf for p hoton n umber f luctuations. The powers needed for SNR and noise factor calculation are the electrical powers caused by the current in a photodiode. SNR is the square of mean photocurrent divided by variance of photocurrent. Monochromatic or sufficiently attenuated light has

4026-409: The total noise figure because the noise figures of the following stages are reduced by stage gains. Consequently, the first amplifier usually has a low noise figure, and the noise figure requirements of subsequent stages is usually more relaxed. The noise factor may be expressed as a function of the additional output referred noise power N a {\displaystyle N_{a}} and

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4092-543: The use of super-injunctions revealed that only two super-injunctions had been granted since January 2010. Many media sources were wrongly describing all gagging orders as super-injunctions. The widespread media coverage of super-injunctions led to a drop in numbers after 2011; however four were granted in the first five months of 2015. Injunctions defined by the European Commission as injunctions which can be issued for instance in cases in which materially

4158-525: Was defamed by family members in a dispute over a multimillion-pound family trust obtained anonymity for himself and for his relatives. Roy Greenslade credits the former editor of The Guardian , Alan Rusbridger , with coining the word "super-injunction" in an article about the Trafigura affair in September 2009. The term "hyper-injunction" has also been used to describe an injunction similar to

4224-466: Was available from 105 US stations by 1965, many of them in the already-crowded VHF spectrum, only 18 percent of the large number of UHF frequencies reserved for educational use in US cities were in active use. In areas where audiences had no UHF receivers, a station broadcasting above channel 13 was unlikely to survive. Under the All-Channel Receiver Act, FCC regulations would ensure that all new TV sets sold in

4290-524: Was capable of receiving over-the-air TV (including VCRs ) was required to include an ATSC tuner . Millions of dollars in fines were imposed in 2008 by the Federal Communications Commission against vendors, including various name-brand retail chains such as Best Buy , Sears / Kmart and Walmart . Best Buy is disputing both the fines and the authority of the FCC to impose the penalties; Circuit City and Sears also disputed

4356-606: Was the super-injunction raised in September 2009 by Carter-Ruck solicitors on behalf of oil trader Trafigura , prohibiting the reporting of an internal Trafigura report into the 2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste dump scandal. The existence of the super-injunction was revealed only when it was referred to in a parliamentary question that was subsequently circulated on the Internet ( parliamentary privilege protects statements by MPs in Parliament which would otherwise be held to be in contempt of court). Before it could be challenged in court,

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