Misplaced Pages

#304695

88-710: The Allegheny National Forest lies in the heart of Pennsylvania's oil and gas region. It is only 40 miles (64 km) from the site of the first commercial oil well in the United States at Titusville, Pennsylvania . In 1981, about 17 percent of the state's crude oil production came from mineral rights owned by private individuals within the Forest boundary. Today the Allegheny Plateau is known for black cherry , maple and other hardwoods , but two hundred years ago these species were less numerous. Today's forest

176-535: A relative static permittivity (dielectric constant) of 6.2, it dissolves not only polar compounds such as inorganic salts and sugars , but also non-polar compounds such as oils as well as polar solutes. It is miscible with polar and non-polar solvents such as water, chloroform , and hexane . With higher alkanes (starting with octane ), acetic acid is not miscible at all compositions, and solubility of acetic acid in alkanes declines with longer n-alkanes. The solvent and miscibility properties of acetic acid make it

264-420: A salt containing this anion, or an ester of acetic acid. (The symbol Ac for the acetyl functional group is not to be confused with the symbol Ac for the element actinium ; context prevents confusion among organic chemists). To better reflect its structure, acetic acid is often written as CH 3 −C(O)OH , CH 3 −C(=O)−OH , CH 3 COOH , and CH 3 CO 2 H . In the context of acid–base reactions ,

352-488: A Forest Plan with extensive public involvement, outlining a vision for how and where management activities will be emphasized. The ANF's initial Forest Plan, which was approved in 1986, is currently undergoing revision. The revision process began in the fall of 2003, and was expected to be complete by early 2007. Additional parcels of the ANF are expected to be recommended to Congress for permanent protection as wilderness areas under

440-430: A certain extent in pure acetic acid, but are disrupted by hydrogen-bonding solvents. The dissociation enthalpy of the dimer is estimated at 65.0–66.0 kJ/mol, and the dissociation entropy at 154–157 J mol  K . Other carboxylic acids engage in similar intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions. Liquid acetic acid is a hydrophilic ( polar ) protic solvent , similar to ethanol and water . With

528-418: A city. In 1871, the first oil exchange in the United States was established there. The exchange moved from the city, but returned in 1881 in a new, brick building, before being dissolved in 1897. The first oil millionaire was Jonathan Watson, a resident of Titusville. He owned the land where Drake's well was drilled. He had been a partner in a lumber business prior to the success of the well. At one time it

616-785: A household in the city was $ 28,978 and the median income for a family was $ 39,679. Males had a median income of $ 27,283 versus $ 20,458 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 19,915. About 13.0% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.4% of those under age 18 and 6.7% of those age 65 or over. The area is served by the Titusville Area School District which includes Titusville High School, Titusville Middle School, Mainstreet Elementary. Pleasantville Elementary, Hydetown Elementary, ECLC. Acetic acid Acetic acid / ə ˈ s iː t ɪ k / , systematically named ethanoic acid / ˌ ɛ θ ə ˈ n oʊ ɪ k / ,

704-417: A level higher in many places than the forest can support. Today the trees are mature and able to provide quality hardwood for furniture and other needs. Foresters deal with challenges like deer, insects, disease, drought and competing vegetation such as fern through research and careful management. A small percentage of the ANF, in select sections, will be left in its natural condition undisturbed by logging on

792-506: A market for virtually every size, species and quality of tree growing on the Allegheny Plateau. Harvests during this era were the most complete ever made in the area, clearing nearly every accessible tree of every size. The once vast forest of the Allegheny Plateau was almost completely removed, leaving barren hillsides as far as the eye could see. Many large forest landowners in Pennsylvania and other northeastern states simply abandoned

880-457: A methanol carbonylation pilot plant as early as 1925. However, a lack of practical materials that could contain the corrosive reaction mixture at the high pressures needed (200 atm or more) discouraged commercialization of these routes. The first commercial methanol carbonylation process, which used a cobalt catalyst, was developed by German chemical company BASF in 1963. In 1968, a rhodium -based catalyst ( cis − [Rh(CO) 2 I 2 ] )

968-471: A number of years was the leading oil-producing region in the world. It was also notable for its lumber industry, including 17 sawmills, as well as its plastic and toolmaking industries. It is part of the Meadville micropolitan area . The area was first settled in 1796 by Jonathan Titus . Within 14 years, others bought and improved land lying near his, along the banks of what is now Oil Creek . Titus named

SECTION 10

#1732764936305

1056-908: A permanent basis, gradually progressing toward the biologically diverse old-growth condition. This large region of Pennsylvania remains one of the least densely populated areas east of the Mississippi River. The Forest lies within the Allegheny Highlands forests ecoregion and about 90% of its area is covered in forests. The Forest contains some of the most extensive tracts of remaining old-growth forest in Pennsylvania, totaling thousands of acres. These include northern hardwood forests in Hearts Content Scenic Area and Tionesta Scenic and Research Natural Areas as well as riverine forests on Crull's and Thompson's Islands . The Forest Service also established

1144-519: A research station for the Northeast in 1923. Soon, research scientists were studying complex relationships among vegetation, animals, soil, nutrients, weather and disease. For decades, scientists have shared both research results and management guidelines based on these results with the ANF, other public and private landowners, and other scientists. During the 1920s, recreation on the ANF focused mostly on dispersed activities like hunting and fishing. In

1232-495: A sustainable way so future generations can enjoy these benefits, too. When the Allegheny National Forest was established in 1923, the immediate challenge was nurturing the young trees growing amongst logging slash on the recently cleared hillsides. Because of such heavy logging and mining, wildfires, floods and erosion were a threat. With care and a general absence of overt human interference and manipulation,

1320-513: A sweet substance also called sugar of lead or sugar of Saturn , which contributed to lead poisoning among the Roman aristocracy. In the 16th-century German alchemist Andreas Libavius described the production of acetone from the dry distillation of lead acetate, ketonic decarboxylation . The presence of water in vinegar has such a profound effect on acetic acid's properties that for centuries chemists believed that glacial acetic acid and

1408-527: A tank of petroleum ether overturned. The petroleum ether ignited and, in the ensuing explosions, 60 men, women and children died. Another lightning strike in 1894 resulted in 27,000 barrels (4,300,000 liters) of oil being lost in a fire. Oil production in Pennsylvania peaked in 1891, after which other industries became established in Titusville. The iron and steel industries dominated the town in

1496-563: A useful industrial chemical, for example, as a solvent in the production of dimethyl terephthalate . At physiological pHs, acetic acid is usually fully ionised to acetate in aqueous solution. The acetyl group , formally derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to all forms of life. Typically, it is bound to coenzyme A by acetyl-CoA synthetase enzymes, where it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats . Unlike longer-chain carboxylic acids (the fatty acids ), acetic acid does not occur in natural triglycerides . Most of

1584-405: A warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months. Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the supply of oxygen to the bacteria. The first batches of vinegar produced by fermentation probably followed errors in the winemaking process. If must is fermented at too high a temperature, acetobacter will overwhelm the yeast naturally occurring on

1672-464: A well that could be commercially successful. Teamsters were needed immediately to transport the oil to markets. In 1862, the Oil Creek & Titusville Railroad was built between Titusville and Corry , where the product was transferred to larger east-west railroad lines. In 1865, pipelines were laid directly to the line and the demand for teamsters practically ended. The next year the railroad line

1760-418: Is an acidic, colourless liquid and organic compound with the chemical formula CH 3 COOH (also written as CH 3 CO 2 H , C 2 H 4 O 2 , or HC 2 H 3 O 2 ). Vinegar is at least 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main component of vinegar apart from water. It has been used, as a component of vinegar, throughout history from at least the third century BC. Acetic acid

1848-446: Is confined to a few niche applications. Acetic acid is a chemical reagent for the production of chemical compounds. The largest single use of acetic acid is in the production of vinyl acetate monomer , closely followed by acetic anhydride and ester production. The volume of acetic acid used in vinegar is comparatively small. The primary use of acetic acid is the production of vinyl acetate monomer (VAM). In 2008, this application

SECTION 20

#1732764936305

1936-421: Is controlled by the food additive code E260 as an acidity regulator and as a condiment. In biochemistry , the acetyl group , derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A , it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats . The global demand for acetic acid as of 2023 is about 17.88 million metric tonnes per year (t/a). Most of the world's acetic acid

2024-498: Is largely the result of two things: the exploitation of timber at the turn of the 20th century and being managed by the Forest Service since 1923. In the 18th century, the forest in northwest Pennsylvania was mostly Eastern Hemlock and American beech . Sugar maple, birch, chestnut, white pine, white oak and red maple were also common. White pine occurred in the original forest in relatively small, well-defined areas where it

2112-455: Is made in submerged tank culture , first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using modern applications of this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 24 hours in batch process, even 20% in 60-hour fed-batch process. Species of anaerobic bacteria , including members of

2200-455: Is produced via the carbonylation of methanol . Its production and subsequent industrial use poses health hazards to workers, including incidental skin damage and chronic respiratory injuries from inhalation. The trivial name "acetic acid" is the most commonly used and preferred IUPAC name . The systematic name "ethanoic acid", a valid IUPAC name, is constructed according to the substitutive nomenclature. The name "acetic acid" derives from

2288-618: Is promoted by iridium for greater efficiency. Known as the Cativa process , the iridium -catalyzed production of glacial acetic acid is greener , and has largely supplanted the Monsanto process, often in the same production plants. Interstellar acetic acid was discovered in 1996 by a team led by David Mehringer using the former Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association array at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory and

2376-408: Is the second simplest carboxylic acid (after formic acid ). It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical across various fields, used primarily in the production of cellulose acetate for photographic film , polyvinyl acetate for wood glue , and synthetic fibres and fabrics. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used in descaling agents . In the food industry , acetic acid

2464-608: Is thought to be competitive with methanol carbonylation for smaller plants (100–250 kt/a), depending on the local price of ethylene. For most of human history, acetic acid bacteria of the genus Acetobacter have made acetic acid, in the form of vinegar. Given sufficient oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic foodstuffs. Commonly used feeds include apple cider , wine , and fermented grain , malt , rice , or potato mashes. The overall chemical reaction facilitated by these bacteria is: A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with Acetobacter and kept in

2552-550: The Latin word for vinegar , " acetum ", which is related to the word " acid " itself. "Glacial acetic acid" is a name for water-free ( anhydrous ) acetic acid. Similar to the German name "Eisessig" ("ice vinegar"), the name comes from the solid ice-like crystals that form with agitation, slightly below room temperature at 16.6 °C (61.9 °F). Acetic acid can never be truly water-free in an atmosphere that contains water, so

2640-618: The Shay which could traverse steep hillsides, uneven tracks and sharp curves. All of these factors supported large sawmill and tannery industries. By 1900, deer and their predators were almost eliminated due to overhunting. The Pennsylvania Game Commission began to restore the deer herd by importing deer from other states. A new enterprise, the wood chemical industry, changed the course of forest development. Between 1890 and 1930, wood chemical plants produced charcoal , methanol , acetic acid , acetate of lime and similar products, and provided

2728-501: The United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 2.9 square miles (7.5 km ), all land. Located 44.4 miles south of Erie, Pennsylvania 83.6 miles North of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 122.9 Miles East of Cleveland, Ohio 120.5 Miles South of Buffalo, New York 78.2 Miles North East of Youngstown, Ohio The City of Titusville is located in the southeastern Corner of Crawford County in

Allegheny National Forest - Misplaced Pages Continue

2816-643: The United States Forest Service decided that the National Environmental Policy Act will govern all oil and gas drilling in the forest. The National Environmental Policy Act will make any oil or gas drilling in the forest subject to public judgement. On June 1, 2009, the Minard Run Oil Co., Pennsylvania Oil and Gas Association, Allegheny Forest Alliance and Warren County Government filed suit in

2904-512: The Wacker process , and then oxidised as above. In more recent times, chemical company Showa Denko , which opened an ethylene oxidation plant in Ōita , Japan, in 1997, commercialised a cheaper single-stage conversion of ethylene to acetic acid. The process is catalyzed by a palladium metal catalyst supported on a heteropoly acid such as silicotungstic acid . A similar process uses the same metal catalyst on silicotungstic acid and silica: It

2992-597: The Wilderness Act of 1964 as a result of the Forest Plan revision process. (In a related connection, the Wilderness Act was authored in 1956 primarily by Howard Zahniser of The Wilderness Society , who grew up in the ANF town of Tionesta .) Recently a conflict has arisen in the Allegheny National Forest over mineral rights. In 1923 the land that is now the Allegheny National Forest was purchased by

3080-413: The grapes . As the demand for vinegar for culinary, medical, and sanitary purposes increased, vintners quickly learned to use other organic materials to produce vinegar in the hot summer months before the grapes were ripe and ready for processing into wine. This method was slow, however, and not always successful, as the vintners did not understand the process. One of the first modern commercial processes

3168-447: The naphthenate salts of manganese , cobalt , and chromium . The typical reaction is conducted at temperatures and pressures designed to be as hot as possible while still keeping the butane a liquid. Typical reaction conditions are 150 °C (302 °F) and 55 atm. Side-products may also form, including butanone , ethyl acetate , formic acid , and propionic acid . These side-products are also commercially valuable, and

3256-822: The understory . Today many of the Eastern National Forests are primarily second-growth and different in character from National Forests in the West created from huge reserves of largely virgin forest. In the Allegheny National Forest, the trees are roughly the same age because they started growing about the same time and the Forest Service continues to manage the land through a silvicultural system known as even-aged management—a practice very closely related to clearcutting . An old-growth forest of hemlock and beech once stretched along northern Pennsylvania, but heavy logging between 1890 and 1930 left only pockets of that early forest in places like Hearts Content . Since

3344-666: The 1930s, the Civilian Conservation Corps changed the face of National Forests across the country by building hundreds of recreation facilities, including Twin Lakes and Loleta Recreation Areas on the ANF. These and other facilities became popular after World War II when newly mobile families discovered the joys of outdoor recreation. The creation of the Allegheny Reservoir when the Kinzua Dam

3432-623: The Allegheny Plateau, multiple benefits and sustainability. The Organic Act of 1897 introduced the National Forest mission: to improve the forest, provide favorable conditions for water flows, and furnish a continuous supply of timber to meet people's needs. On these lands, seedlings for tomorrow's forest are the focus of forest management activities. Watersheds are managed to ensure clear water for fisheries like trout and clean drinking water for all. Over time, various laws added other benefits like wilderness, heritage resources and grazing to

3520-528: The Federal Government, but the federal government did not buy the subsurface or mineral rights of the land because of financial issues. Private citizens currently own ninety-three percent of the subsurface land in the forest. Since the spike in oil prices around 2000, oil companies that own mineral rights have placed more drilling equipment in the forest. During an out of court settlement in April 2009,

3608-407: The Forest Service began to manage the Allegheny National Forest in 1923, a different forest of hardwood trees like black cherry (that are more valuable as a timber product) was established through the use of herbicides and selective fertilizing. This weeded out the "undesirable" native trees while allowing the black cherry tree to thrive. The Forest Service brought new concepts in forest management to

Allegheny National Forest - Misplaced Pages Continue

3696-763: The Pennsylvania Wilderness Act into law, which designated the Hickory Creek Wilderness Area and Allegheny Islands Wilderness Area as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System . Today, the Forest Service carries out a variety of management and research activities, providing multiple benefits with a strong scientific basis. Defining the way a National Forest is to be managed can be controversial. The National Forest Management Act of 1976 required each National Forest to implement

3784-599: The Pittsburgh High Plateau. The city is drained by Oil Creek , a south-flowing tributary of the Allegheny River , and two tributaries to Oil Creek, Pine Creek , and Church Run . The lowest elevation in the City of Titusville is 1,150 ft (350 m) where Oil Creek flows south of out of the city. The highest elevation is 1,650 ft (500 m) on a high point at the northeastern corner of

3872-558: The Seneca Oil Company (formerly the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company ) sent Col. Edwin L. Drake to start drilling on a piece of leased land just south of Titusville, near what is now Oil Creek State Park . In the summer of 1859, Drake hired a salt well driller, William A. Smith. They had many difficulties, but on August 27, at the site of an oil spring just south of Titusville, they finally drilled

3960-665: The United States District Court in Erie, Pennsylvania over the National Forest Service's use of the National Environmental Policy Act. Titusville, Pennsylvania Titusville is a city in the far eastern corner of Crawford County, Pennsylvania , United States. The population was 5,262 at the 2020 census . Titusville is known as the birthplace of the American oil industry and for

4048-485: The abbreviation HAc is sometimes used, where Ac in this case is a symbol for acetate (rather than acetyl). The carboxymethyl functional group derived from removing one hydrogen from the methyl group of acetic acid has the chemical formula −CH 2 −C(=O)−OH . Vinegar was known early in civilization as the natural result of exposure of beer and wine to air because acetic acid-producing bacteria are present globally. The use of acetic acid in alchemy extends into

4136-445: The abundant food and cover. Rapidly growing trees soak up carbon, add much oxygen to the atmosphere, and protect soil. Taller trees shade streams, helping to regulate water temperature for aquatic life. By the 1940s, the forest began to take on an appearance familiar to us today. The older trees provide acorns, cherries, and beech nuts for bear and turkey. Birds find sites for nests in the leafy tree crowns and plants like trillium prefer

4224-405: The acetate generated in cells for use in acetyl-CoA is synthesized directly from ethanol or pyruvate . However, the artificial triglyceride triacetin (glycerine triacetate) is a common food additive and is found in cosmetics and topical medicines; this additive is metabolized to glycerol and acetic acid in the body. Acetic acid is produced and excreted by acetic acid bacteria , notably

4312-444: The acetic acid will precipitate out. As of 2003–2005, total worldwide production of virgin acetic acid was estimated at 5 Mt/a (million tonnes per year), approximately half of which was produced in the United States. European production was approximately 1 Mt/a and declining, while Japanese production was 0.7 Mt/a. Another 1.5 Mt were recycled each year, bringing the total world market to 6.5 Mt/a. Since then,

4400-524: The acid found in vinegar were two different substances. French chemist Pierre Adet proved them identical. In 1845 German chemist Hermann Kolbe synthesised acetic acid from inorganic compounds for the first time. This reaction sequence consisted of chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride , followed by pyrolysis to tetrachloroethylene and aqueous chlorination to trichloroacetic acid , and concluded with electrolytic reduction to acetic acid. By 1910, most glacial acetic acid

4488-576: The chemical industry is made by the carbonylation of methanol , explained below. The biological route accounts for only about 10% of world production, but it remains important for the production of vinegar because many food purity laws require vinegar used in foods to be of biological origin. Other processes are methyl formate isomerization, conversion of syngas to acetic acid, and gas phase oxidation of ethylene and ethanol . Acetic acid can be purified via fractional freezing using an ice bath. The water and other impurities will remain liquid while

SECTION 50

#1732764936305

4576-540: The city. As of the 2017 United States Census , there were 5,418 people, 2,397 households, and 1,337 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,931.2 inhabitants per square mile (745.6/km ). There were 2,876 housing units at an average density of 901.7 per square mile (348.1/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 96.2% White , 1.9% African American , 0.2% Native American , 0.9% Asian , 0.2% from other races , and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of

4664-439: The concentration of domestic vinegar) has a pH of 2.4, indicating that merely 0.4% of the acetic acid molecules are dissociated. [REDACTED] In solid acetic acid, the molecules form chains of individual molecules interconnected by hydrogen bonds . In the vapour phase at 120 °C (248 °F), dimers can be detected. Dimers also occur in the liquid phase in dilute solutions with non-hydrogen-bonding solvents, and to

4752-423: The detections. The hydrogen centre in the carboxyl group (−COOH) in carboxylic acids such as acetic acid can separate from the molecule by ionization: Because of this release of the proton ( H ), acetic acid has acidic character. Acetic acid is a weak monoprotic acid . In aqueous solution, it has a pK a value of 4.76. Its conjugate base is acetate ( CH 3 COO ). A 1.0  M solution (about

4840-501: The early 19th century. At first, trees were cut mostly to clear land for agriculture and provide timber for cabins and barns. Soon, the first commercial water-powered mills cut small amounts of lumber from selected pine, hemlock and large hardwoods. By 1840, portable steam engines made circular sawmills practical, and mills that could process 10,000 board feet (24 m³) of lumber per day were common. Tanneries that used hemlock bark as their source of tannin for curing leather began to appear in

4928-465: The early twentieth century, with lumber eventually reclaiming its former pre-eminence. Oil still has some relevance, however. Charter Plastics, now located in a building that once manufactured pressure vessels, stationary engines and boilers for the oil industry, uses oil in its production processes. Titusville is located at 41°38′N 79°40′W  /  41.633°N 79.667°W  / 41.633; -79.667 (41.629, −79.674). According to

5016-399: The equation: The process involves iodomethane as an intermediate, and occurs in three steps. A metal carbonyl catalyst is needed for the carbonylation (step 2). Two related processes exist for the carbonylation of methanol: the rhodium-catalyzed Monsanto process , and the iridium-catalyzed Cativa process . The latter process is greener and more efficient and has largely supplanted

5104-406: The filtered light of the maturing forest. In the 1940s, the Forest Service gradually resumed timber harvesting under strict research-based guidelines to ensure sustainability for future generations. Abundant browse led to a dramatic increase in the deer population, which peaked in the 1940s and again in the late 1970s. Since the mid-1980s, the deer population has remained fairly constant, although at

5192-438: The forests grew. Since they started growing at roughly the same time, most of the trees in today's second-growth forest on the Allegheny Plateau are the same age (70–100 years old). Between 1900 and 1940, the young forest grew and evolved from openings to young forest to maturing forest. Young forests offer diverse vegetation like seedlings, saplings, wildflowers and berries. Deer, grouse, songbirds and other wildlife thrive with

5280-745: The former Millimeter Array located at the Owens Valley Radio Observatory . It was first detected in the Sagittarius B2 North molecular cloud (also known as the Sgr B2 Large Molecule Heimat source). Acetic acid has the distinction of being the first molecule discovered in the interstellar medium using solely radio interferometers ; in all previous ISM molecular discoveries made in the millimetre and centimetre wavelength regimes, single dish radio telescopes were at least partly responsible for

5368-496: The former process. Catalytic amounts of water are used in both processes, but the Cativa process requires less, so the water-gas shift reaction is suppressed, and fewer by-products are formed. By altering the process conditions, acetic anhydride may also be produced in plants using rhodium catalysis. Prior to the commercialization of the Monsanto process, most acetic acid was produced by oxidation of acetaldehyde . This remains

SECTION 60

#1732764936305

5456-494: The genus Acetobacter and Clostridium acetobutylicum . These bacteria are found universally in foodstuffs , water , and soil , and acetic acid is produced naturally as fruits and other foods spoil. Acetic acid is also a component of the vaginal lubrication of humans and other primates , where it appears to serve as a mild antibacterial agent. Acetic acid is produced industrially both synthetically and by bacterial fermentation . About 75% of acetic acid made for use in

5544-691: The genus Clostridium or Acetobacterium , can convert sugars to acetic acid directly without creating ethanol as an intermediate. The overall chemical reaction conducted by these bacteria may be represented as: These acetogenic bacteria produce acetic acid from one-carbon compounds, including methanol, carbon monoxide , or a mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen : This ability of Clostridium to metabolize sugars directly, or to produce acetic acid from less costly inputs, suggests that these bacteria could produce acetic acid more efficiently than ethanol-oxidizers like Acetobacter . However, Clostridium bacteria are less acid-tolerant than Acetobacter . Even

5632-464: The global production has increased from 10.7 Mt/a in 2010 to 17.88 Mt/a in 2023. The two biggest producers of virgin acetic acid are Celanese and BP Chemicals. Other major producers include Millennium Chemicals , Sterling Chemicals , Samsung , Eastman , and Svensk Etanolkemi  [ sv ] . Most acetic acid is produced by methanol carbonylation . In this process, methanol and carbon monoxide react to produce acetic acid according to

5720-655: The growing cities in the East, demanded lumber to build homes, stores and furniture . Demand for paper and other wood pulp products increased. An eightyfold increase in coal production led to the need for more lumber for mine props , timbers, and planks. Band saws came into use after 1880, making possible the construction of huge mills capable of sawing 100,000 feet (30,000 m) or more of lumber per day. Railroads provided convenient transportation to consumers and markets. They also opened up extensive and previously inaccessible areas of timber with specialized locomotives such as

5808-572: The land and moved West in search of new forests. The land left behind often ended up on delinquent tax rolls, prompting a financial crisis for rural counties. The bare soil and logging slash made floods and wildfires a constant danger. In 1911, the United States Congress passed the Weeks Act , allowing the federal government to buy land in eastern states for the establishment of National Forests. The Allegheny National Forest

5896-504: The late 1850s. This infant industry received a great boost by the Civil War demand for harness, military equipment and industrial belting. By the end of the century, the tanning industry was a major forest industry in Pennsylvania that used huge quantities of hemlock bark. The logs were removed later and sawn into lumber products. Between 1850 and 1900, American society and technology changed in dramatic ways. People, moving West and in

5984-422: The most acid-tolerant Clostridium strains can produce vinegar in concentrations of only a few per cent, compared to Acetobacter strains that can produce vinegar in concentrations up to 20%. At present, it remains more cost-effective to produce vinegar using Acetobacter , rather than using Clostridium and concentrating it. As a result, although acetogenic bacteria have been known since 1940, their industrial use

6072-444: The original idea of watershed protection and continuous timber. The Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 recognized outdoor recreation, wilderness preservation, and habitat for wildlife and fisheries. The motto "Land of Many Uses" captures the National Forest goal of a healthy, vigorous forest that provides wood products, watershed protection, a variety of wildlife habitats and recreational opportunities, not only for today, but in

6160-607: The population was 15,000. But the oil soon ran dry and within four years the city was nearly deserted. Tarbell moved to Titusville in 1870. His daughter, Ida Minerva Tarbell , grew up amidst the sounds and smells of the oil industry. She became an accomplished writer and published a series of articles about the business practices of the Standard Oil Company and its president, John D. Rockefeller , which sparked legislative action in Congress concerning monopolies. Fire

6248-399: The population. There were 2,322 households, out of which 25.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.2% were married couples living together, 13.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4% were non-families. 37.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size

6336-432: The presence of 0.1% water in glacial acetic acid lowers its melting point by 0.2 °C. A common symbol for acetic acid is AcOH (or HOAc), where Ac is the pseudoelement symbol representing the acetyl group CH 3 −C(=O)− ; the conjugate base , acetate ( CH 3 COO ), is thus represented as AcO . Acetate is the ion resulting from loss of H from acetic acid. The name "acetate" can also refer to

6424-637: The reaction conditions may be altered to produce more of them where needed. However, the separation of acetic acid from these by-products adds to the cost of the process. Similar conditions and catalysts are used for butane oxidation, the oxygen in air to produce acetic acid can oxidize acetaldehyde . Using modern catalysts, this reaction can have an acetic acid yield greater than 95%. The major side-products are ethyl acetate , formic acid , and formaldehyde , all of which have lower boiling points than acetic acid and are readily separated by distillation . Acetaldehyde may be prepared from ethylene via

6512-485: The second-most-important manufacturing method, although it is usually not competitive with the carbonylation of methanol. The acetaldehyde can be produced by hydration of acetylene . This was the dominant technology in the early 1900s. Light naphtha components are readily oxidized by oxygen or even air to give peroxides , which decompose to produce acetic acid according to the chemical equation , illustrated with butane : Such oxidations require metal catalyst, such as

6600-466: The third century BC, when the Greek philosopher Theophrastus described how vinegar acted on metals to produce pigments useful in art, including white lead ( lead carbonate ) and verdigris , a green mixture of copper salts including copper(II) acetate . Ancient Romans boiled soured wine to produce a highly sweet syrup called sapa . Sapa that was produced in lead pots was rich in lead acetate ,

6688-411: The village Edinburg(h), but as it grew, the settlers began to call the hamlet Titusville. The village was incorporated as a borough in 1849. It was a slow-growing community until the 1850s, when petroleum was discovered in the region. Oil was known to exist there, but there was no practical way to extract it. Its main use at that time had been as a medicine for both animals and humans. In the late 1850s,

6776-410: Was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.91. In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.8% under the age of 18, 11.7% from 18 to 24, 22.2% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 19.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.0 males. The median income for

6864-451: Was always a significant concern around oil and one of the worst blazes was on June 11, 1880. It came to be known as "Black Friday", when almost 300,000 barrels (48,000 m ) of oil burned after an oil tank was hit by lightning. The fire raged for three days until it finally was brought under control. The destroyed oil was valued at $ 2 million, but there was no loss of life. Another fire occurred on June 5, 1892, when Oil Creek flooded and

6952-728: Was completed in 1965 brought the most dramatic change to developed recreation on the ANF. Within ten years, a tremendous development program resulted in campgrounds, boat launches, beaches, picnic areas, hiking trails and overlooks around the reservoir shoreline and elsewhere throughout the forest. Over time, people's changing and more sophisticated expectations led to campground improvements like electricity, hot showers, and baby-changing stations. Areas to watch wildlife (Buzzard Swamp, Little Drummer), trails for cross-country skiing and motorized recreation (all-terrain vehicles, snowmobiles) and fully accessible fishing piers, trails and restrooms have been added, too. In 1984, President Ronald Reagan signed

7040-527: Was dense and richly diverse. Disturbances such as tornado , blowdown, and ice storms were common events that created a random mosaic of small openings in the forest canopy across the landscape before human beings arrived to the North American continent. Later, Native Americans burned small areas of the understory of the forest in locations to improve berry and oak mast production, hunting, and ease of travel. European settlers reached this area in

7128-412: Was discovered that could operate efficiently at lower pressure with almost no by-products. US chemical company Monsanto Company built the first plant using this catalyst in 1970, and rhodium-catalyzed methanol carbonylation became the dominant method of acetic acid production (see Monsanto process ). In the late 1990s, BP Chemicals commercialised the Cativa catalyst ( [Ir(CO) 2 I 2 ] ), which

7216-426: Was established in 1923. But with low deer populations, a new forest quickly grew. This forest was different from the previous one because conditions were now different. Shade-tolerant, long-lived trees like hemlock and beech gave way to sun-loving, shorter-lived species like black cherry, which readily germinated on the bare sunny ground. Cherry , red maple , black birch , and sugar maple became common species in

7304-606: Was estimated to consume a third of the world's production of acetic acid. The reaction consists of ethylene and acetic acid with oxygen over a palladium catalyst , conducted in the gas phase. Vinyl acetate can be polymerised to polyvinyl acetate or other polymers , which are components in paints and adhesives . The major esters of acetic acid are commonly used as solvents for inks , paints and coatings . The esters include ethyl acetate , n - butyl acetate , isobutyl acetate , and propyl acetate . They are typically produced by catalyzed reaction from acetic acid and

7392-596: Was extended south to Petroleum Centre and Oil City . The Union & Titusville Railroad was built in 1865. That line became part of the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad in 1871. That fall, President Ulysses S. Grant visited Titusville to view the important region. Other oil-related businesses were quickly established. Eight refineries were built between 1862 and 1868. Drilling tools were needed and several iron works were built. Titusville grew from 250 residents to 10,000 almost overnight and in 1866, it incorporated as

7480-594: Was obtained from the pyroligneous liquor , a product of the distillation of wood. The acetic acid was isolated by treatment with milk of lime , and the resulting calcium acetate was then acidified with sulfuric acid to recover acetic acid. At that time, Germany was producing 10,000 tons of glacial acetic acid, around 30% of which was used for the manufacture of indigo dye . Because both methanol and carbon monoxide are commodity raw materials, methanol carbonylation long appeared to be attractive precursors to acetic acid. Henri Dreyfus at British Celanese developed

7568-575: Was said that Titusville had more millionaires per capita than anywhere else in the world. One resident of note was Franklin S. Tarbell, whose large Italianate home still stands. He first moved a few miles south in Venango County and established a wooden stock tank business. About 10 miles (16 km) south-east of Titusville was another oil boom city, Pithole . Oil was discovered in a rolling meadow there in January 1865 and, by September 1865,

7656-496: Was the "fast method" or "German method", first practised in Germany in 1823. In this process, fermentation takes place in a tower packed with wood shavings or charcoal . The alcohol-containing feed is trickled into the top of the tower, and fresh air supplied from the bottom by either natural or forced convection . The improved air supply in this process cut the time to prepare vinegar from months to weeks. Nowadays, most vinegar

7744-526: Was typically accompanied by chestnut and to a lesser degree oak. Black cherry accounted for less than one percent of the plateau's trees. This old-growth forest contained rich, vibrant biodiversity, and was characterized by large trees, fallen logs, and a multi-layered forest canopy . Predation by the native eastern wolf ( Canis lupus lycaon ) and eastern cougar ( Puma concolor couguar ) kept deer populations at naturally regulated low levels, estimated at ten deer per square mile. The understory vegetation

#304695