Kittanning Formation
41-620: The Allegheny Group , often termed the Allegheny Formation , is a Pennsylvanian -age geological unit in the Appalachian Plateau . It is a major coal -bearing unit in the eastern United States , extending through western and central Pennsylvania , western Maryland and West Virginia , and southeastern Ohio . Fossils of fishes such as Bandringa are known from the Kittaning Formation , which
82-481: A few hundred thousand years. The Pennsylvanian is named after the U.S. state of Pennsylvania , where the coal beds of this age are widespread. The division between Pennsylvanian and Mississippian comes from North American stratigraphy. In North America, where the early Carboniferous beds are primarily marine limestones , the Pennsylvanian was in the past treated as a full-fledged geologic period between
123-401: A performance bond to ensure that monies will be available to complete the reclamation if the operator goes out of business prior to finishing the reclamation or is otherwise unable to complete the reclamation. The amount of the bond must equal the amount of the proposed reclamation plan. The bond is not released to the operator until after the state or federal regulatory office has concluded that
164-457: A practice, mine reclamation began at the start of the 20th century. Returning the landscape to its original state is not possible in all cases. In most cases the physical and chemical stabilization of mine waste is the limit of mine remediation. As part of the life cycle of a surface coal mine , completed mine areas must undergo rehabilitation. When mining ends, operators must restore the land to its approximate original contour (AOC) or leave
205-955: A rich fauna of cephalopod fossils, the best representation of the Desmoinesian stage in the Appalachian region. In terrestrial sediments, the Allegheny Group preserves characteristic Desmoinesian index fossils of conchostracans (bivalved crustaceans ). Conchostracan species in the unit belong to an assemblage zone distinguished by Anomalonema reumauxi , Pseudestheria simoni , and potentially Palaeolimnadiopsis freysteini . Invertebrate fossils from Linton include ' spirorbid ' tubes, ostracods , syncarid crustaceans, and millipedes ( Xyloiulus bairdi , Plagiascetus lateralis , and other undescribed species). Some groups (insects, arachnids , and freshwater bivalves ) are curiously absent from Linton. The lowermost portion of
246-646: A technical, economic and environmental perspective. Here, the focus is placed on the scientific accompaniment of the so-called eternity tasks of coal-mining in the areas of the Ruhr , the Saar as well as in Ibbenbüren , where mining, geology, geotechnical engineering, hydrogeology, electrical and information technology experts as well as mining surveyors work together across the different disciplines. The Research Institute of Post-Mining develops monitoring processes both at
287-501: A variety of goals, ranging from the restoration of productive ecosystems to the creation of industrial and municipal resources. In the United States, mine reclamation is a regular part of modern mining practices. Modern mine reclamation reduces the environmental effects of mining . Many abandoned mine sites have no reclamation works undertaken. The majority of mines throughout history have no stringent regulations applied. As
328-413: Is noteworthy that the rate of soil carbon storage on post mining soil can be very high and may exceed the rate of carbon storage one may gain, e.g., by reforestation of arable land. Alternatively, an integrated approach can be taken that uses the holistic approach to accomplish the first three steps of the forestry reclamation approach. Once those first three steps are accomplished and well-established,
369-894: Is part of the Allegheny Group. In Pennsylvania, the Allegheny Group includes rocks from the base of the Brooksville Coal to the top of the Upper Freeport Coal, and was defined to include all economically significant coals in the upper Pennsylvanian sequence. The unit consists of cyclothemic sequences of coal, shale, limestone, sandstone, and clay. It contains six major coal zones, which, in stratigraphic order, are: Glen Richey (PA), Laurel Run (PA), Mineral Springs (PA), Millstone Run (PA), Clearfield Creek (PA); Clarion (OH, MD, PA, WV), Kittanning (PA), Freeport (PA, MD, OH, WV); Putnam Hill (OH, PA); Vanport (PA, MD, OH, WV); Butler (MD, PA), Worthington (MD, PA); Washingtonville (OH, PA, WV), Columbiana (OH) Relative age dating of
410-520: Is used for backfilling the excavation. A layer of soil that was stored in the premining is placed on top of the rocky material. On top of this layer is placed a layer of topsoil . The final step is the restoration of vegetation and long-term development of plant succession . Reforestation is a dominant way of post mining sites restoration. In some situation even spontaneous ecosystem development may result in reasonable forest cover but in most cases specific restoration approaches are used. Within
451-613: The ICS geologic timescale , the younger of two subperiods of the Carboniferous Period (or the upper of two subsystems of the Carboniferous System). It lasted from roughly 323.2 million years ago to 298.9 million years ago . As with most other geochronologic units, the rock beds that define the Pennsylvanian are well identified, but the exact date of the start and end are uncertain by
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#1732800938984492-620: The National Museum of Natural History ). Fossil collection extended into the 20th century, with expeditions led by Jesse Hyde (AMNH), A.S. Romer ( Field Museum ), Donald Baird (Harvard, Princeton ), Richard Lund and David Hamilla ( Carnegie ). Over 7000 Linton fossils are now in the collections of at least 14 museums across three countries. A second fossiliferous site is Five Points, a similar coal deposit in Beaver Township of Mahoning County . The Five Points cannel coal mine
533-735: The Powell River Project, a cooperative research and education program focused on topics relevant to coal mining and reclamation in Appalachia . The FRA establishes guidelines for achieving successful reforestation on mined lands, and can be summarized in the following five steps: When the top successional species for the local environment is not forest due to local microclimate conditions, reclamation may be better accomplished by establishing rangeland instead. Holistic management has been championed by Dan Dagget and others for mine reclamation in these types of situations. When
574-662: The drift mine was permanently closed. The drift mine collapsed soon afterwards and the settlement diminished into obscurity. The main Diamond coal seam is likely equivalent to the Upper Freeport coal. John S. Newberry , from Columbia University and Chief Geologist of the Geological Survey of Ohio, was the first paleontologist to investigate the Linton area. Starting in 1856, he collected thousands of fossils from
615-525: The end of the Permian , during which their cynodont descendants became smaller and nocturnal , as the reptilian archosaurs took over, although dicynodonts would remain megafaunal until their extinction at the end of the Triassic . Most pre-rainforest collapse tetrapods remained smaller, probably due to the land being primarily occupied by the gigantic millipedes, scorpions, and flying insects. After
656-476: The marrattialean fern Cyathocarpus . The plant macrofossil record is mirrored by microfossils : "tree fern" spores are the most diverse components of the palynoflora , and Lycospora (a lycopsid miospore ) is also abundant. Loyalsburg Formation Pennsylvanian (geology) The Pennsylvanian ( / ˌ p ɛ n s əl ˈ v eɪ n i . ən / pen-səl- VAYN -i-ən , also known as Upper Carboniferous or Late Carboniferous ) is, on
697-630: The Allegheny Group belongs to the Laveineopteris rarinervis plant macrofossil zone. This biozone is distinguished by Laveineopteris rarinervis and Neuropteris ovata , two species of medullosalean " seed ferns " which first appear in the uppermost Kanawha Formation. In the Kittanning coals and higher stratigraphic sections, the plant fossils transition to the Neuropteris flexuosa zone, characterized by Neuropteris flexuosa and
738-677: The Allegheny places it about mid-way through the Pennsylvanian , the second subperiod of the Carboniferous period. The plant and conchostracan fossils in particular can be equated with European strata of the "Asturian" ( Westphalian D ) regional stage. In North America, the roughly equivalent regional stage is known as the Desmoinesian . The Asturian has an estimated age of 310.7 to 307.5 million years ago ( Ma ), equivalent to
779-820: The Gzhelian plus the uppermost Kasimovian. The Missourian or Monongahela corresponds to the rest of the Kasimovian. The Desmoinesian or Allegheny corresponds to the upper half of the Moscovian. The Atokan or upper Pottsville corresponds to the lower half of the Moscovian. The Morrowan corresponds to the Bashkirian. In the European subdivision, the Carboniferous is divided into two epochs: Dinantian (early) and Silesian (late). The Silesian starts earlier than
820-707: The Mississippian and the Permian . In parts of Europe, the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are one more-or-less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are grouped together as the Carboniferous Period. The current internationally used geologic timescale of the ICS gives the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian the rank of subperiods, subdivisions of the Carboniferous Period. All modern classes of fungi have been found in rocks of Pennsylvanian age. The major forms of life at this time were
861-731: The OSMRE fund since 1977. In view of the end of coal mining in Germany in 2018, the Research Institute of Post-Mining (FZN) was set up at the Technische Hochschule Georg Agricola (THGA) in Bochum in 2015. It is the very first institute of its kind in the world, which takes a holistic view of the consequences of mining, and pools the know-how required, in order to shape the post-mining period from
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#1732800938984902-453: The Pennsylvanian and is divided in three ages: Mine reclamation Mine reclamation is the process of modifying land that has been mined to restore it to an ecologically functional or economically usable state. Although the process of mine reclamation occurs once mining is complete, the planning of mine reclamation activities may occur prior to a mine being permitted or started. Mine reclamation creates useful landscapes that meet
943-534: The arthropods. Arthropods were far larger than modern ones. Arthropleura , a giant millipede , was a common sight and the giant griffinfly Meganeura "flew the skies". It is commonly considered that is because of high oxygen level, however some of those large arthropod records are also known from period with relatively low oxygen, which suggest high oxygen pressure may not have been a primary reason for their gigantism. Amphibians were diverse and common; some were several meters long as adults. The collapse of
984-479: The best available material is not topsoil, topsoil can be made on site by using early successional species of native hardy perennial grasses and other plants, combined with livestock substituting for the species of wildlife needed to complete the biosystem. In particular soil development and soil biota play a substantial role in post mining development. Although soil restoration in post mining land brings many challenges, it also bring opportunities. For example it
1025-428: The earliest sauropsid reptiles ( Hylonomus ), and the earliest known " pelycosaur " synapsids ( Archaeothyris ). Small lizard-like animals quickly gave rise to many descendants. Amniotes underwent a major evolutionary radiation, in response to the drier climate that followed the rainforest collapse . For some reason, pelycosaurs were able to reach larger sizes before reptiles could, and this trend continued until
1066-518: The environmental effects of coal mining in the United States. It established permitting guidelines for existing and future coal mines as well as a trust fund to finance the reclamation of abandoned mines . SMCRA balances the need to protect the environment from the effects of surface coal mining with the Nation's need for coal as an essential energy source. It ensures that coal mining operations are conducted in an environmentally responsible manner and that
1107-421: The fossil sites of the Allegheny Group, including an articulated tail from Five Points, an eogyrinid -like skull roof from Linton, and archeriid -like cranial and postcranial fragments from both Linton and Five Points. Marine fossils in the Allegheny Group are concentrated into only a few patchy bands of limestone and shale. Four marine members (Putnam Hill, Vanport, Columbiana, and Washingtonville) have produced
1148-411: The funding to administer and enforce the legislation. Guidelines for post-mining reclamation were generally less stringent than they are today. For example, Colorado began a voluntary reclamation program in 1965, in which the mine operators were expected to act on their own to restore mined lands. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (SMCRA) is the primary federal law that regulates
1189-414: The land after mining has been completed. The reclamation plan must include, among other criteria, the pre-mining condition and use of the land to be mined; the proposed use of the land after reclamation; an estimated time table for the reclamation; and the steps that will be taken to comply with the relevant air and water quality laws. In addition to providing the reclamation plan, operators must also post
1230-425: The land graded and suitable for a “higher and better” post-mining land use (PMLU) that has been approved as part of the original mining permit application. Exceptions are provided when a community or surface owner is in need of flat or gently rolling terrain. Acceptable post-mining land uses include commercial, residential, recreational, agricultural or public facility improvements. In open cut mines rocky material
1271-478: The land is adequately reclaimed during and following the mining process. Most coal-mining states now have the primary responsibility to regulate surface coal mining on lands within their jurisdiction, with the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) performing an oversight role. Under SMCRA, prior to receiving a mining permit, operators must present a detailed and comprehensive plan for reclaiming
Allegheny Group - Misplaced Pages Continue
1312-497: The latter half of the global Moscovian stage. The Allegheny Group has the richest fauna of tetrapod fossils in the entire Appalachian Basin , and practically all of these fossils are concentrated at the Linton site of Ohio. Linton was once a tiny village at the mouth of Yellow Creek ( Saline Township ) in Jefferson County . The nearby Diamond Coal Mine was active from 1855 to 1892, and again from 1917 to 1921, when
1353-515: The livestock grazing can be reduced or eliminated to allow medium and higher successional species to take root and continue the forestry approach. Prior to 1977, there were no federal laws regulating the surface mining aspect of the coal mining industry. Although many states with mining activity had passed laws to regulate operations, the laws varied from state to state and enforcement was inconsistent. Even as states began to enact more stringent regulatory legislation after World War II, they often lacked
1394-556: The mine. Under the stewardship of E.D. Cope , some of Newberry's fossils were transferred to the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), and others to the Orton Geological Museum at The Ohio State University. Other 19th-century geologists who collected fossils from the site include Frank Howe Bradley (1865, on behalf of Yale ), R. N. Fearon (1883, Harvard ), and Thomas Stock (1888, British Museum and
1435-538: The past decade, a new approach to reforestation —the Forestry Reclamation Approach, or FRA—has been promoted by state mining agencies and the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) as an appropriate and desirable method for reclaiming coal-mined land to support forested land uses under SMCRA. This approach was developed through and is supported by research conducted through
1476-400: The pithead and below ground and prepares the scientific principles for a sustainable pit water concept. In this respect, the institute works closely with mining and old companies, as well as authorities, water boards and regional authorities, industrial firms and universities. It also runs its own knowledge management project, which is intended to make mining and post-mining know-how available in
1517-492: The rainforest collapse, the giant arthropods disappeared, allowing amniote tetrapods to achieve larger sizes. The Pennsylvanian has been variously subdivided. The international timescale of the ICS follows the Russian subdivision into four stages: North American subdivision is into five stages, but not precisely the same, with additional (older) Appalachian series names following: The Virgilian or Conemaugh corresponds to
1558-489: The rainforest ecology in the mid-Pennsylvanian (between the Moscovian and the Kasimovian) removed many amphibian species that did not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Amniotes, however, prospered due to specific key adaptations. One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain tetrapods . These included
1599-515: The reclamation is successful, which could be over 10 years after the reclamation process has been completed. Funding for the reclamation of abandoned mines is accomplished through a coal production tax. Mine operators must pay a tax of $ 0.12 per ton for underground mined coal and $ 0.28 per ton for surfaced mined coal; the proceeds from this tax are put into the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund (created by SMCRA) to pay for
1640-505: The reclamation of abandoned mines. A percentage of the fund is distributed to states with approved reclamation programs for their projects, and the remaining monies are used by the federal government through the OSMRE to reclaim abandoned mines in states without active programs. As of December 15, 2011, OSMRE has provided more than $ 7.2 billion to reclaim more than 295,000 acres of hazardous high-priority abandoned mine sites and for other purposes of abandoned mine lands have been reclaimed through
1681-439: Was first publicized as a fossil site by Robert Hook and Donald Baird in 1994, who collected tetrapod fossils comparable to those found at Linton. However, the mine at Five Points was reclaimed around the same time, so the fossiliferous spoil piles are no longer accessible for further collection. Tetrapod records from Hook & Baird (1986/1988) unless stated otherwise: Various indeterminate embolomere fossils are known from