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84-564: Several incomplete manuscripts of Aparajitaprccha were discovered in Gujarat in early 20th-century (particularly Baroda), and others later in central and north India. It has at least 239 sutras , each sutra followed by many verses. This collection is called sutrasantana , and thus extends into over 7500 verses. The first edition and translation of the text was published by Popatbhai Mankad in 1950, while Lal Mani Dubey published another critical study with translation and bhasya (commentary) on

168-514: A sutta or sutra constitutes a segment of the canonical literature. These early Buddhist sutras, unlike Hindu texts, are not aphoristic; rather, they tend to be quite lengthy. The Buddhist term sutta or sutra likely derives from Sanskrit sūkta ( su + ukta ), meaning "well spoken," reflecting the belief that "all that was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well-spoken". They embody the essence of sermons conveying "well-spoken" wisdom, akin to

252-408: A tirthankara . According to the texts, he was born as Marichi (the son of Bharata Chakravartin ) in a previous life. Yativṛṣabha 's Tiloya-paṇṇatti recounts nearly all the events of Mahavira's life in a form convenient for memorisation. Jinasena's Mahapurana (which includes the Ādi purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa ) was completed by his disciple, Gunabhadra , in the 8th   century. In

336-575: A "very elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religions. Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami , his Ganadhara (chief disciple). The canonical scriptures are in twelve parts. Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300   BCE, according to Jain tradition, when

420-608: A Jain text that includes monastic rules, as well as biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras . Many sutras discuss all aspects of ascetic and lay life in Jainism. Various ancient sutras particularly from the early 1st millennium CE, for example, recommend devotional bhakti as an essential Jain practice. The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as the Acaranga Sutra ( Agamas ), exist in sutra format, as

504-399: A better rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation. According to Chakravarthi, these teachings help improve a person's quality of life. However, Dundas writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures" but by "continual self discipline":

588-456: A cleansing of the soul which leads to spiritual development and release. Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching that ahimsa is the supreme moral virtue. He taught that ahimsa covers all living beings, and injuring any being in any form creates bad karma (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and suffering). According to Mahatma Gandhi , Mahavira

672-594: A collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text. Sutras are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found in Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism . In Hinduism, sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short aphoristic statements. Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven. The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in

756-460: A derivation from Vedic or Sanskrit sūkta (well spoken), rather than from sūtra (thread). In Jainism, sutras, also known as suyas , are canonical sermons of Mahavira contained in the Jain Agamas as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts. The Sanskrit word Sūtra ( Sanskrit : सूत्र, Pali : sutta , Ardha Magadhi : sūya ) means "string, thread". The root of the word

840-435: A doctrine about the nature of reality and human existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or any other living being) as "perhaps right". The five vows for Jain monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps". Mahavira's Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the renunciant Jain communities, but each religion

924-452: A few years later". The place of his nirvana, Pavapuri in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains. According to Jain cosmology , 24 Tirthankaras have appeared on earth; Mahavira is the last tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (the present time cycle ). A tirthankara ( ford -maker, saviour or spiritual teacher) signifies the founding of a tirtha , a passage across the sea of birth-and-death cycles . Tirthankara Mahavira

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1008-443: A fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions might injure other beings living in those states of matter. Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul is reborn after death in one of the trilok  – the heavenly, hellish, or earthly realms of existence and suffering. Humans are reborn, depending on one's karma (actions) as a human, animal, element, microbe, or other form, on earth or in

1092-503: A half years in which he did not even sit for a time, attained Kevalgyana and then preached Dharma for thirty years. Where he preached has been a subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism: Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions. It is uncertain when Mahavira was born and when he died. One view is that Mahavira was born in 540   BCE and died in 443   BCE. The Barli Inscription in Prakrit language which

1176-410: A half years, after which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained moksha (liberation) in the 6th century BCE, although the year varies by sect . Mahavira taught attainment of samyak darshan or self realization through the practice of bhedvijnāna , which involves positioning oneself as a pure soul, separate from body, mind and emotions, and being aware of

1260-454: A heavenly (or hellish) realm. Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their previous life. Jinas who have reached Kevala Jnana ( omniscience ) are not reborn; they enter the siddhaloka , the "realm of the perfected ones". Mahavira is erroneously called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused it. Mahavira

1344-484: A key role in the progression towards self-realization. It serves as a stepping stone in the process of spiritual awakening, where the aspirant first becomes aware of their mistaken identity with the non-soul as their witness ( bhed-nasti ), and later become aware of the existence and true nature of the soul itself ( asti ). This process ultimately leads to the direct experience of the soul in a state of pure awareness, destroying karmic attachments. In Jainism, this knowledge

1428-453: A number of aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the truth"). Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way around. One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempt to express

1512-415: A part of the same cycle of birth and death. The goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the jiva from its karmic accumulation and enter the realm of the siddhas , souls who are liberated from rebirth. Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence of self awareness, self-cultivation and restraint from materialism. Mahavira also taught the concept of Bhedvijnān, or the science of distinguishing between

1596-542: A piece of burning camphor. Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra . Although a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of saṃsāra , the birth of a tirthankara is reckoned from the time he determines the causes of karma and pursues ratnatraya . Jain texts describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as

1680-533: A severe famine in the Magadha kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it. These efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings, and an attempt was made in the 5th   century CE to reconcile the differences. The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In

1764-407: A teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference. A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand without associated scholarly Bhasya or deciphering commentary that fills in the " weft ". The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era that contain extensive sutras are part of

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1848-424: A woman is unable to fully practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a man. According to this view, women are seen as a threat to a monk's chastity. Mahavira had preached about men and women equality. The Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life with

1932-457: Is siv , "that which sews and holds things together". The word is related to sūci (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list", and sūnā (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven". In the context of literature, sūtra means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven. A sūtra

2016-470: Is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words". A collection of sūtras becomes a text, and this is also called sūtra (often capitalized in Western literature). A sūtra is different from other components such as Shlokas , Anuvyakhayas and Vyakhyas found in ancient Indian literature. A sūtra is a condensed rule which succinctly states

2100-399: Is bound to saṃsāra (transmigration) because of karma (the effects of one's actions). Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the soul ( lesya ), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after death. According to Mahavira, there is no creator deity and existence has neither beginning nor end. Deities and demons however exist in Jainism , whose jivas are

2184-574: Is called Nigantha Nātaputta), and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way , rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira accepted both "it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of "perhaps". The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering metaphysical , philosophical questions

2268-668: Is celebrated as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and his nirvana (liberation) and also his first shishya of Gautama Swami is observed by Jains as Diwali . Historically, Mahavira, who revived and preached Jainism in ancient India, was an older contemporary of Gautama Buddha . Jains celebrate Mahavir Janma Kalyanak every year on the 13th day of the Indian Calendar month of Chaitra . Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names (or epithets ) for Mahavira, including Nayaputta , Muni , Samana , Nigantha , Brahman , and Bhagavan . In early Buddhist sutras , he

2352-457: Is considered the foundation for developing right belief (samyak darshan) and attaining samyak gyan ( omniscience ). Mahavira taught the doctrine of anekantavada (many-sided reality). Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions posed by his followers. Truth and reality are complex, and have

2436-410: Is no proof that it is not. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This different from body, because of heterogeneousness. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it is expressed by means of the sixth case. (Sutra 3, Book 6) With Vijnanabhiksu's commentary bhasya filled in: Soul is, for there is no proof that it is not, since we are aware of "I think", because there is no evidence to defeat this. Therefore all that is to be done

2520-468: Is placed in Parshvanatha's lineage as his spiritual successor and ultimate leader of shraman sangha. Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira. Parshvanatha , a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE. Jain texts suggest that Mahavira's parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. When Mahavira revived the Jain community in

2604-522: Is referred to as Araha ("worthy") and Veyavi (derived from "Vedas", but meaning "wise"). He is known as Sramana in the Kalpa Sūtra , "devoid of love and hate". According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's prosperity at the time of his birth. According to the Kalpasutras , he was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by

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2688-528: Is said to have lived in Rajagriha during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491   BCE. According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala Jnana (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree on the bank of the River Rijubalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance. The details of

2772-513: Is supported by much ancient Buddhist literature. A firmly-established part of the Jain tradition is that the Vira Nirvana Samvat era began in 527   BCE (with Mahavira's nirvana). The 12th-century Jain scholar Hemachandracharya placed Mahavira in the 6th   century BCE. According to Jain tradition, the traditional date of 527   BCE is accurate; the Buddha was younger than Mahavira and "might have attained nirvana

2856-491: Is the Tattvartha Sutra , a Sanskrit text accepted by all four Jainism sects as the most authoritative philosophical text that completely summarizes the foundations of Jainism. Mahavira Mahavira ( Devanagari : महावीर, Mahāvīra ), also known as Vardhamana (Devanagari: वर्धमान, Vardhamāna ), was the 24th Tirthankara (Supreme Preacher) of Jainism . He was the spiritual successor of

2940-530: Is the focus of Jain temple devotion. Of the 24 tirthankaras , Jain iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most; sculptures discovered at the Mathura archaeological site have been dated to the 1st   century BCE. According to Moriz Winternitz , Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known as Niganthas (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist texts. The Barli Inscription dating back to 443 BCE contains

3024-514: Is to discriminate it from things in general. (Sutra 1, Book 6) This soul is different from the body because of heterogeneousness or complete difference between the two. (Sutra 2, Book 6) Also because it, the Soul, is expressed by means of the sixth case, for the learned express it by the possessive case in such examples as 'this is my body', 'this my understanding'; for the possessive case would be unaccountable if there were absolute non-difference, between

3108-421: The mahavratas (Five Vows). He delivered fifty-five pravachana (recitations) and a set of lectures ( Uttaraadhyayana-sutra ). Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order. According to Jain texts, Mahavira's nirvana (death) occurred in the town of Pawapuri in present-day Bihar . His life as a spiritual light and the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as Diwali at

3192-434: The Ācārāṅga Sūtra recounts his asceticism. Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's followers) a sect of Buddhism because of superficial similarities in iconography and meditative and ascetic practices. As scholarship progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged as separate. Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught

3276-628: The Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas . Every school of Hindu philosophy , Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which help teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next. In Buddhism, sutras, also known as suttas , are canonical scriptures , many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of Gautama Buddha . They are not aphoristic, but are quite detailed, sometimes with repetition. This may reflect

3360-603: The Gregorian calendar , and is celebrated by Jains as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak . Kshatriyakund (the place of Mahavira's birth) is traditionally believed to be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Its location in present-day Bihar is unclear, partly because of migrations from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons. According to the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many rebirths (total 27 births) before his birth in

3444-484: The Jain Agamas . The texts, transmitted orally by Jain monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century CE. Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture, with the symbol of a lion beneath him. His earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the North Indian city of Mathura , and is dated from between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. His birth

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3528-458: The Uttara-purāṇa , Mahavira's life is described in three parvans , or sections, (74–76) and 1,818 verses. Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya poem, written by Asaga in 853 CE , which narrates the life of Mahavira. The Kalpa Sūtra is a collection of biographies of tirthankaras , notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Samavayanga Sutra is a collection of Mahavira's teachings, and

3612-408: The Vedas , dated from the late 2nd millennium BCE through to the mid 1st millennium BCE. The Aitareya Aranyaka , for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of sutras . Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called Gatha , Narashansi , Itihasa , and Akhyana (songs, legends, epics, and stories). In

3696-421: The 1st   century CE, guided the Āchāryas Pushpadant and Bhutabali as they wrote down the teachings. The two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama , among the oldest-known Digambara texts, on palm leaves. The Jain Agamas enumerate five vratas (vows) which ascetics and householders must observe. These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira: The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace,

3780-557: The 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha . Mahavira was born in the early 6th century BCE to a royal Kshatriya Jain family of ancient India . His mother's name was Trishala and his father's name was Siddhartha . According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara Ācārāṅga Sūtra , Siddhartha and his family were devotees of Parshvanatha . Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic . Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and

3864-415: The 6th century BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. The followers of Parshvanatha vowed to observe ahimsa ; this obligation was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint). According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image

3948-418: The 6th-century BCE. They included a denizen of hell, a lion, and a god ( deva ) in a heavenly realm just before his last birth as the 24th tirthankara . Svetambara texts state that his embryo first formed in a Brahman woman before it was transferred by Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife. The embryo-transfer legend is not believed by adherents of

4032-653: The Digambara believe that he remained in his Samavasarana and delivered sermons to his followers. Jain texts document eleven Brahmanas as Mahavira's first disciples, traditionally known as the eleven Ganadharas . Indrabhuti Gautama is believed to have been their leader, and the others included Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, Sudharman , Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa. The Ganadharas are believed to have remembered and to have verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His teachings became known as Gani-Pidaga , or

4116-461: The Digambara tradition holds that date of 468 BCE. In both traditions, his jiva (soul) is believed to abide in Siddhashila (the home of liberated souls). Mahavira's Jal Mandir stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana ( moksha ). Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small pyre of sandalwood and

4200-477: The Digambara tradition. Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god Indra came from the heavens along with 56 digkumaries , anointed him, and performed his abhisheka (consecration) on Mount Meru . These events, illustrated in a number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple rituals. Although the Kalpa Sūtra accounts of Mahavira's birth legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during

4284-503: The Jain Agamas . According to Kalpa Sutra , Mahavira had 14,000 sadhus (male ascetic devotees), 36,000 sadhvis (female ascetics), 159,000 sravakas (male lay followers), and 318,000 sravikas (female lay followers). Jain tradition mentions Srenika and Kunika of Haryanka dynasty (popularly known as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru ) and Chetaka of Videha as his royal followers. Mahavira initiated his mendicants with

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4368-631: The Jain sutras. In Chinese, these are known as 經 ( pinyin : jīng ). These teachings are organized as part of the Tripiṭaka , specifically referred to as the Sutta Pitaka . Numerous significant or influential Mahayana texts, such as the Platform Sutra and the Lotus Sutra , are termed sutras despite being attributed to much later authors. In Theravada Buddhism , suttas constitute

4452-696: The Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge at yajnas (fire rituals). The sutras corresponding to these are embedded inside the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery", and "On Euphonic Laws". The fourth and often

4536-528: The annual Paryushana festival, the same festival is observed by the Digambaras without the recitation. Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara text Ācārāṅga Sūtra , his parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha . Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married. The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry. The Śvētāmbara tradition believes that he

4620-552: The body or the like, and the Soul to which it is thus attributed as a possession. (Sutra 3, Book 6) – Kapila in Samkhya Sutra , Translated by James Robert Ballantyne Reality is truth ( prāma , foundation of correct knowledge), and what is true is so, irrespective of whether we know it is, or are aware of that truth. – Akṣapada Gautama in Nyaya Sutra , Translated by Jeaneane D Fowler In Buddhism,

4704-695: The canons of architecture", state Vohra and Dhaky. Its discussion on complex large Nagara-style temples is one of the oldest and most complete, particularly in the context of historic temples of western regions of India. Its canonical guidelines are followed in highly ornate Hindu and Jain marble-stone temples built after the 11th-century, and sections of the text are found in traditional shilpin families in Gujarat, Rajasthan and nearby regions. Sutra Sutra ( Sanskrit : सूत्र , romanized :  sūtra , lit.   'string, thread') in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or

4788-453: The early centuries of the common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written in palm-leaf manuscripts . According to the Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned achāryas restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of Mahavira which were the subjects of the Agamas . Āchārya Dharasena, in

4872-571: The event are described in the Jain Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-purāņa texts. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The Sutrakritanga expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other qualities. Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body ( paramaudārika śarīra ) and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience. According to the Śvētāmbara, he traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after attaining omniscience. However,

4956-528: The experience is syāt : valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma. Mahavira's anekantavada doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta (in which he

5040-483: The false identification of the soul with material objects, including the body and mind. The teachings of bhedvijnān guide an individual to recognize what is truly the soul and what is not. By distinguishing between the pure soul and the transient elements of life, one can cultivate detachment (vairagya) and move toward liberation (moksha). This was expounded in detail in works of Acharya Kundkund , Acharya Haribhadra , Yashovijaya and Shrimad Rajchandra . Bhedvigyan plays

5124-473: The final edition of the Aparajitaprccha was likely completed in the 12th-century. The Aparajitaprccha shows significant influences from Samarangana Sutradhara , another major Hindu vastu and shilpa sastra text that has survived into the modern age. It acknowledges this influence and elaborates the principles. The different manuscripts of Aparajitaprccha show variations, likely errors created as

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5208-647: The gods in the Kalpa Sūtra because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears, hardships and calamities. He is also known as a tirthankara . It is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that Mahavira lived in ancient India. According to the Digambara Uttarapurana text, Mahavira was born in Kundagrama in the Kingdom of the Videhas ; the Śvētāmbara Kalpa Sūtra uses

5292-420: The history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period". This period followed the more ancient Chhandas period , Mantra period and Brahmana period . (The ancient) Indian pupil learnt these sutras of grammar, philosophy or theology by

5376-1001: The last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in the Taittiriya Upanishad . The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the Kalpa Sutras , Shulba Sutras , Srauta Sutras , Dharma Sutras , Grhya Sutras , and Smarta traditions . Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics, and grammar. Example of sutras from Vedanta Sutra अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा ॥१.१.१॥ जन्माद्यस्य यतः ॥ १.१.२॥ शास्त्रयोनित्वात् ॥ १.१.३॥ तत्तुसमन्वयात् ॥ १.१.४॥ ईक्षतेर्नाशब्दम् ॥ १.१.५॥ — Brahma Sutra 1.1.1–1.1.5 Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of Hindu philosophy include Sutra, without commentary: Soul is, for there

5460-453: The manuscript was interpolated and copied over the centuries. Though incomplete and with errors, the Aparajitaprccha is one of the six best known, influential and most complete Hindu treatises on architecture and iconography that have survived. The text lists and discusses the various designs of temples, housing, water infrastructure, sculpture, pillars, domes, arrangement of architectural space ( chanda ) and such topics. Some sections present

5544-590: The message, while a Shloka is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter, an Anuvyakhaya is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a Vyakhya is a comment by the reviewer. Sutras first appear in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layer of Vedic literature. They grow in number in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras. These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from

5628-465: The nails and hair of tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the body dissolves in the air like camphor . In some texts Mahavira is described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day period to a large group of people. The crowd falls asleep, awakening to find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his followers cremate). The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana occurred in 527 BCE, and

5712-401: The name "Kundagrama", said to be located in present-day Bihar, India. Although it is thought to be the town of Basu Kund, about 60 kilometres (37 miles) north of Patna (the capital of Bihar), his birthplace remains a subject of dispute. Mahavira renounced his material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some accounts (thirty by others), lived an ascetic life for twelve and

5796-429: The possibility of moksha ( kaivalya , spiritual liberation). Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of Mahavira. According to the Acaranga Sutra , Mahavira believed that life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects, bodies of water, fire, and wind. He taught that a monk should avoid touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim, light (or extinguish)

5880-602: The pursuit of spiritual awakening. He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications, meditated under the Ashoka tree , and discarded his clothes. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra has a graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification. According to the Kalpa Sūtra , Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his life in Astikagrama, Champapuri , Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, Nalanda , Mithila , Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Shravasti , and Pawapuri . He

5964-622: The rules of musical meters for Samaveda chants and songs. A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of the Vedas . These are six subjects that said in the Vedas to be necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their own sutras were "pronunciation ( Shiksha ), meter ( Chandas ), grammar ( Vyakarana ), explanation of words ( Nirukta ), time keeping through astronomy ( Jyotisha ), and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa). The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in

6048-475: The same mechanical method which fixes in our (modern era) minds the alphabet and the multiplication table. Traditional Some of the earliest surviving specimens of sutras of Hinduism are found in the Anupada Sutras and Nidana Sutras . The former distills the epistemic debate whether Sruti or Smriti or neither must be considered the more reliable source of knowledge, while the latter distills

6132-549: The same time that Hindus celebrate it. His chief disciple, Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri. Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to the Jinasena 's Mahapurana , heavenly beings arrived to perform his funeral rites. The Pravachanasara of Digambara tradition says that only

6216-533: The second "basket" (pitaka) of the Pāli Canon . Rewata Dhamma and Bhikkhu Bodhi describe the Sutta Pitaka as: The Sutta Pitaka, the second collection, brings together the Buddha's discourses spoken by him on various occasions during his active ministry of forty-five years. In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized. The Kalpa Sūtra is, for example,

6300-473: The soul (jiva) and the non-soul (ajiva). Central to his teachings, bhedvijnān is the practice of realizing the distinction between the pure soul, which is eternal, formless, and independent, and the temporary, external aspects of existence such as body, thoughts, emotions, and karmic influences. According to Mahavira, this understanding is crucial for attainment of nischay Samyak darshan (experiential self realization). He emphasized that human suffering arises from

6384-566: The soul's true nature; and to remain grounded and steadfast in soul's unchanging essence during varying auspicious or inauspicious external circumstances. He also preached that the observance of the vows of ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment) are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught the principles of Anekantavada (many-sided reality): syadvada and nayavada . Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Indrabhuti Gautama (his chief disciple) as

6468-487: The text in 1987. The exact date of its composition is unclear. The generally accepted range is sometime between 1000 and 1200 CE based on its language, internal evidence such as those it cites and iconography it recommends, as well as matching its specific teachings with actual temples built and which can be dated with confidence. However, peculiar details such as subtle measurements for moldings specified in it, as well as its specifications for deity Vayu and Yama suggests that

6552-734: The theory behind Hindu and Jain temples in north and western parts of India, useful in appreciating the Maru-Gurjara style of intricately carved architecture found in the temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat. According to Vohra and Dhaky, known for publications and a multi-volume encyclopedia on Indian architecture, the Aparajitaprccha is one of the "few and most valuable texts on the Nagara school of architecture". The text includes sections that digress into Hindu puranic summaries that has little to do with architecture, it also has many sections where there are "cogent and perfectly detailed statements about

6636-484: Was "highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals". A historically contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of renunciation (the fifth vow, aparigraha ). It was disputed whether a female mendicant ( sadhvi ) could achieve the spiritual liberation like a male mendicant ( sadhu ) through asceticism. The digambar sect (the sky-clad, naked mendicant order) believed that

6720-544: Was a "qualified yes" ( syāt ). A version of this doctrine is also found in the Ajivika school of ancient Indian philosophy. According to Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal religious tolerance ... plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings. Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings are

6804-669: Was born into a royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and Queen Trishala of the Licchavi republic . The Ikshvaku Dynasty was founded by the First tirthankara Rishabhanatha . According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599   BCE. His birth date falls on the thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of Chaitra in the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar era . It falls in March or April of

6888-550: Was inscribed in 443 BCE (year 84 of the Vira Nirvana Samvat ), contains the line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase , which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year", 84 years after the Nirvana of the Mahavira. However, palaeographic analysis dates the inscription to the 2nd-1st century BCE. According to Buddhist and Jain texts, Buddha and Mahavira are believed to have been contemporaries which

6972-663: Was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana, also called Anojja. Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as four cubits (6 feet ) in the Aupapatika Sutra . According to Jain texts, he was the shortest of the twenty-four tirthankaras ; earlier arihants were believed to have been taller, with Neminatha or Aristanemi —the 22nd tirthankara , who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-five cubits (98   feet) in height. At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in

7056-465: Was the greatest authority on ahimsa . Mahavira taught that the soul exists. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its teachings are based on the concept of anatta (non-self). Mahavira taught that the soul is dravya (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary. To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists of dravya , jiva , and ajiva (inanimate objects). The jiva

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