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42-465: Arsames ( Old Persian : 𐎠𐎼𐏁𐎠𐎶 Aršāma, modern Persian :،آرسام، آرشام‎ Arshām, Greek : Ἀρσάμης ) was the son of Ariaramnes and the grandfather of Darius I . He was traditionally claimed to have briefly been king of Persia during the Achaemenid dynasty , and to have given up the throne and declared loyalty to his relative Cyrus II of Persia before retiring to his family estate in

84-421: A "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian." Old Persian subsequently evolved into Middle Persian , which is in turn the ancestor of New Persian . Professor Gilbert Lazard , a famous Iranologist and the author of the book Persian Grammar , states: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as

126-617: A continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan , Parthian , Soghdian , Kurdish , Pashto , etc., Old, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars and

168-520: A fake, either modern or ancient. Another attestation of his reign is the Behistun Inscription , where his grandson Darius I lists him among his ancestors, although he does not explicitly mention him as being one of the anonymous eight kings whom he claims preceded him. Arsames was the father of Hystaspes (satrap of Parthia ), Pharnaces (satrap of Phrygia) and Megabates (a general). Arsames lived to see his grandson, Darius I, become

210-532: A few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in the beginning (i.e. in DB ) took only half the height of a line. The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script: Notes: Lycian 𐊋𐊆𐊈𐊈𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Kizzaprñna ~ 𐊈𐊆𐊖𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Zisaprñna for (genuine) Old Persian *Ciçafarnā (besides

252-564: A major role in the expansion of modern humans after the Out of Africa migration , serving as 'population hub' for 'Common Eurasians', where they subsequently diverged into ' Ancient East Eurasians ' and 'Ancient West Eurasians' at c. 50,000 years ago, and from where they expanded in two waves during the Initial Upper Paleolithic (c. 45kya) and Upper Paleolithic (c. 38kya) periods respectively. Ancient and modern populations in

294-436: A royal family is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Old Persian language Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets and seals of the Achaemenid era ( c.  600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what is now Iran , Romania ( Gherla ), Armenia , Bahrain , Iraq , Turkey and Egypt , with the most important attestation by far being

336-515: A sculptured figure of myself I made. Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius the Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are found on the Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under Cyrus the Great ". The script shows

378-485: A similar way. Voices Active, Middle (them. pres. -aiy- , -ataiy- ), Passive ( -ya- ). Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved Dual form is ajīva tam 'both lived'. Iranian plateau The Iranian plateau or Persian plateau is a geological feature spanning parts of the Caucasus , Central Asia , South Asia , and West Asia . It makes up part of

420-412: A somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both asa (OPers.) and aspa (Med.)." Old Persian texts were written from left to right in the syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms . The usage of logograms is not obligatory. The script was surprisingly not a result of evolution of the script used in

462-651: Is Noshaq in the Hindu Kush at 7,492 metres (24,580 ft), and its lowest point is the Lut Desert to the east of Kerman , Iran, at below 300 metres (980 ft). In geology, the plateau region of Iran primarily formed from the accretionary Gondwanan terranes between the Turan platform to the north and the Main Zagros Thrust; the suture zone between the northward moving Arabian plate and

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504-496: Is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian. Old Persian "presumably" has a Median language substrate . The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in the developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan ." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian

546-622: Is an Iranian language and as such a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family . The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscriptions . Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts. The oldest date of use of Old Persian as a spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about

588-415: Is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. Middle Persian , also sometimes called Pahlavi, is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country. Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, New Persian

630-617: Is rendered in Elamite as Mirkānu- , rendering transcriptions such as V(a)rakāna , Varkāna or even Vurkāna questionable and making Vrkāna or Virkāna much more realistic (and equally for vrka- "wolf", Brdiya and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic /r/ ). While v usually became /v/ in Middle Persian, it became /b/ word-initially in New Persian, except before [u] (including

672-725: Is rugged country with higher elevations, a more severe climate, and greater precipitation than are found on the Anatolian sub-plateau . The region is known as the Anti-Taurus , and the average elevation of its peaks exceeds 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Mount Ararat , at 5,137 meters (16,854 ft) the highest point in Turkey , is located in the Anti-Taurus. Lake Van is situated in the mountains at an elevation of 1,546 meters (5,072 ft). The headwaters of major rivers arise in

714-682: The Baluchistan region and along the slopes of the Elburz and Zagros mountains. 200 varieties of fish live in the Persian Gulf. Thirty species of the most important commercial fish Sturgeon is found in the Caspian Sea. The Iranian plateau harvests trees for making doors, ploughs, and baskets. Fruit is grown also. Pears , apples , apricots , quince , plums , nectarines , cherries , mulberries , and peaches were commonly seen in

756-515: The Eurasian continent is the Iranian plateau. It is a geologically well-studied area because of general interest in continental collision zones, and because of Iran's long history of research in geology , particularly in economic geology . The Iranian plateau in geology refers to a geographical area north of the great folded mountain belts resulting from the collision of the Arabian plate with

798-948: The Eurasian plate , and is wedged between the Arabian plate and the Indian plate . The plateau is situated between the Zagros Mountains to the west, the Caspian Sea and the Köpet Dag to the north, the Armenian Highlands and the Caucasus Mountains to the northwest, the Strait of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf to the south, and the Indian subcontinent to the southeast. As a historical region, it includes Parthia , Media , Persis , and some of

840-609: The Eurasian plate . In this definition, the Iranian plateau does not cover southwestern Iran. The plateau extends from East Azerbaijan Province in northwest of Iran (Persia) all the way to Afghanistan and Pakistan west of the Indus River . It also includes smaller parts of the Republic of Azerbaijan , Iraqi Kurdistan , and Turkmenistan . The northwestern Iranian plateau, where the Pontic and Taurus Mountains converge,

882-604: The Great King of the Persian Empire, though he died during his reign. Arsames and his son Hystaspes are noted as being alive in 522 BC, indicating that he had survived well into old age. His name ( Aršāma ) translates to "having a hero's strength". The feminine version of the name is Aršāmā ( modern Persian :ارشاما [Arshāmā], Greek: Arsamē), and was the name of the daughter of Darius I , likely named in reference to him. This biography of an Iranian ruler or member of

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924-590: The Median form *Ciθrafarnah ) = Tissaphernes suggests /t͡s/ as the pronunciation of ç (compare [1] and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in [2] for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes Çiçafarnā , which contradicts the etymology [ PIIr. *Čitra-swarnas- ] and the Middle Persian form Čehrfar [ ç gives Middle Persian s ]). The phoneme /l/ does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from Akkadian (a new /l/ develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian /rd/ and

966-523: The 20th century. Almonds and pistachios are common in warmer areas. Dates , oranges , grapes , melon , and limes are also grown. Other edibles include potatoes and cauliflower , which were hard to grow until European settlement brought irrigation improvements. Other vegetables include cabbage , tomatoes , artichokes , cucumbers , spinach , radishes , lettuce , and eggplants . The plateau also produces wheat , barley , millet , beans , opium , cotton , lucerne , and tobacco . The barley

1008-576: The Anti-Taurus: the east-flowing Aras River flows into the Caspian Sea , and the south-flowing Euphrates and Tigris join in Iraq before flowing into the Persian Gulf . Several small streams that flow into the Black Sea or landlocked Lake Van also originate in these mountains. The Indus River begins in the highlands of Tibet and flows the length of Pakistan almost tracing the eastern edge of

1050-478: The Iranian Plateau extends for close to 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi). It encompasses a large part of Iran , all of Afghanistan , and the parts of Pakistan that are situated to the west of the Indus River , covering an area of some 3,700,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi) In spite of being called a plateau , it is far from flat, and contains several mountain ranges; its highest point

1092-712: The Iranian plateau have a similar genetic component to the Ancient West Eurasian lineage which stayed in the 'population hub' (WEC2), but also display some ancestry from Basal Eurasians and Ancient East Eurasians via contact events starting in the Paleolithic . In the Bronze Age, Elam stretched across the Zagros mountains, connecting Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau. The kingdoms of Aratta , known from cuneiform sources, may have been located in

1134-558: The Iranian plateau. Southeast Anatolia lies south of the Anti-Taurus Mountains. It is a region of rolling hills and a broad plateau surface that extends into Syria. Elevations decrease gradually, from about 800 meters (2,600 ft) in the north to about 500 meters (1,600 ft) in the south. Traditionally, wheat and barley are the main crops of the region. The plateau's mountain ranges can be divided into five major subregions : The Iranian plateau may have played

1176-547: The Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian pārsa itself coming directly from the older word *pārćwa . Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median , according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before the formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of

1218-515: The Persian heartland of Parsa , living there peacefully for the rest of his life, perhaps nominally exercising the duties of a "lesser king" under the authority of the "Great King". However, the claim that he or his son were ever kings is rejected by historians such as Pierre Briant . In an inscription allegedly found in Hamadan he is called "king of Persia", but the document is widely argued to be

1260-718: The central Iranian plateau. In classical antiquity the region was known as Persia , due to the Persian Achaemenid dynasty originating in Fars . The Middle Persian Erān (whence Modern Persian Irān ) began to be used in reference to the state (rather than as an ethnic designator) from the Sassanid period (see Etymology of Iran ). Archaeological sites and cultures of the Iranian plateau include: The plateau has historical oak and poplar forests. Oak forests are found around Shiraz . Aspen , elm , ash , willow , walnut , pine , and cypress are also found, though

1302-486: The change of /rθ/ to /hl/ ). The phoneme /r/ can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic /r/ (such as Brdiya ) are rendered in Elamite and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before the syllabic /r/ , an epenthetic vowel [i] had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became [u] after labials. For example, Old Persian Vᵃ-rᵃ-kᵃ-a-nᵃ /wr̩kaːna/

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1344-506: The consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage DB (IV lines 88–92) from Darius the Great who speaks of a new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in Aryan ": King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda this is the inscription which I have made. Besides, it was in Aryan (" ariyâ ") script, and it was composed on clay tablets and on parchment. Besides,

1386-549: The contents of the Behistun Inscription (dated to 525 BCE). In 2007, research into the vast Persepolis Fortification Archive at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display. As a written language , Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. It

1428-411: The earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, Parsuwash (along with Matai , presumably Medians) are first mentioned in the area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III . The exact identity of

1470-639: The early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called Parsuwash , who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province . Their language, Old Persian, became the official language of the Achaemenid kings. Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide

1512-408: The epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became /ɡ/ . This suggests that it was really pronounced as [w] . Old Persian has 3 types of grammatical number: singular, dual and plural. Old Persian has three grammatical genders : masculine, feminine and neuter. In contrast, Modern Persian (as well as Middle Persian ) is a genderless language . Old Persian stems: Adjectives are declined in

1554-624: The first half of the first millennium BCE. Old Persian belongs to the Iranian language family , a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, itself within the large family of Indo-European languages . The common ancestors of Indo-Iranians came from Central Asia sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE . The extinct and unattested Median language is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian; both are classified as Western Iranian languages , and many Median names appear in Old Persian texts. The group of Old Iranian languages

1596-524: The latter two are rare. As of 1920, poplar was harvested for making doors . Elm was used for ploughs . Other trees like acacia , cypress, and Turkestan elm were used for decorative purposes. Flower wise, the plateau can grow lilac , jasmine , and roses . Hawthorn and Cercis siliquastrum are common, which are both used for basket weaving . The plateau is abundant with wildlife including leopards , bears , hyenas , wild boars , ibex , gazelles , and mouflons . These animals are mostly found in

1638-492: The nearby civilisation of Mesopotamia . Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in cuneiform script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt, was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE". The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of debate among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making

1680-580: The previous territories of Greater Iran . The Zagros form the plateau's western boundary, and its eastern slopes may also be included in the term. The Encyclopædia Britannica excludes "lowland Khuzestan " explicitly and characterizes Elam as spanning "the region from the Mesopotamian plain to the Iranian Plateau". From the Caspian in the northwest to the Suleiman mountains in the southeast,

1722-541: The wooded mountains of the plateau. The shores of the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf house aquatic birds such as seagulls , ducks , and geese . Deer, hedgehogs, foxes, and 22 species of rodents are found in semidesert, and palm squirrels and Asiatic black bears live in Baluchistan. Wide variety of amphibians and reptiles such as toads, frogs , tortoises , lizards , salamanders , racers, rat snakes ( Ptyas ), cat snakes ( Tarbophis fallax ), and vipers live

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1764-439: Was presumably large; however, knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, Avestan , and Median. The first two are the only languages in that group to have left written original texts, while Median is known mostly from loanwords in Old Persian. By the 4th century BCE, the late Achaemenid period , the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called

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