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55-513: The word comes from the Old Persian word asabāra (from asa - and bar , a frequently used Achaemenid military technical term). The various other renderings of the word are the following: Parthian asbār (spelt spbr or SWSYN ), Middle Persian aswār (spelt ʼswbʼl or SWSYA ), Classical Persian suwār ( سوار ), uswār / iswār ( اسوار ), Modern Persian savār ( سوار ). The Arabic word asāwira ( أساورة ), used to refer to

110-675: A written language , Old Persian is attested in royal Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and as such a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family . The oldest known text written in Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscriptions . Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languages which are attested in original texts. The oldest date of use of Old Persian as

165-699: A certain faction of the Sasanian cavalry after the Muslim conquest, is a broken plural form of the Middle Persian aswār . However, the word aswār only means "horseman" in Middle Persian literature, and it is only the late Arabic term that has a more specialized meaning. In the Sassanian inscriptions , the formula asp ud mard (literally "horse and man") was commonly used to collectively refer to

220-473: A description with the bravery, tactics, and ethics of the Sasanians. They mastered in single combat in battles ( mard o-mard ), rode on elephants and horses, and their valor was recognized with ornamental emblems. Titles such as hazārmard ("whose strength is equal to one thousand men"), zih asbār ("superior rider"), and pahlawān-i gēhān ("hero or champion of the world"), were their epithets. They wrote

275-408: A device called panjagan which was supposedly able to fire a volley of five arrows. Each asbaran unit would have a Drafsh, or heraldric standard. These would have often included legendary creatures and animals . These animals would have included elephants , horses , bears , lions , and deer ( ahu ); these banners would also include Zoroastrian mythological creatures such as Bashkuch and

330-464: A direct blow from a blade, nor a gunshot. Alternative names are "moulded leather" and "hardened leather". In the course of making the material it becomes very soft, and can be impressed into a mould to give it the desired shape and decoration, which most surviving examples have. Pieces such as chests and coffers also usually have a wooden inner core. Various recipes for making cuir bouilli survive, and do not agree with each other; probably there were

385-474: A famous Iranologist and the author of the book Persian Grammar , states: The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Parsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike

440-519: A new "form of writing" being made by himself which is said to be "in Aryan ": King Darius says: By the grace of Ahuramazda this is the inscription which I have made. Besides, it was in Aryan (" ariyâ ") script, and it was composed on clay tablets and on parchment. Besides, a sculptured figure of myself I made. Also, the analysis of certain Old Persian inscriptions are "supposed or claimed" to predate Darius

495-437: A range of recipes, partly reflecting different final uses. Vegetable-tanned leather is generally specified. Scholars have debated the subject at length and attempted to recreate the historical material. Many, but not all, sources agree that the process involved immersion of the leather in water, but not actual boiling. Cuir bouilli was used for cheap and light armour, although it was much less effective than plate armour, which

550-405: A similar way. Voices Active, Middle (them. pres. -aiy- , -ataiy- ), Passive ( -ya- ). Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved Dual form is ajīva tam 'both lived'. Boiled leather Boiled leather , often referred to by its French translation, cuir bouilli ( French: [kɥiʁ buji] ), was a historical material common in

605-572: A spoken language is not precisely known. According to certain historical assumptions about the early history and origin of ancient Persians in Southwestern Iran (where Achaemenids hailed from), Old Persian was originally spoken by a tribe called Parsuwash , who arrived in the Iranian Plateau early in the 1st millennium BCE and finally migrated down into the area of present-day Fārs province . Their language, Old Persian, became

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660-445: A sword-like iron blade. Face masks were used since at least the 4th century AD. The horse-armor covered the torso (with an oval opening for the rider's seat), as well as the head and neck. Before stirrups came into widespread use, the riders relied on a saddle with "four horn" design for their stability. The Sasanian cavalry was relying more on maneuverability than their Parthian predecessors. The late aswaran reportedly also used

715-421: Is a direct continuation of Old Persian and was used as the written official language of the country. Comparison of the evolution at each stage of the language shows great simplification in grammar and syntax. However, New Persian is a direct descendant of Middle and Old Persian. Old Persian "presumably" has a Median language substrate . The Median element is readily identifiable because it did not share in

770-402: Is another Old Iranian language related to Old Persian; both are classified as Western Iranian languages , and many Median names appear in Old Persian texts. The group of Old Iranian languages was presumably large; however, knowledge of it is restricted mainly to Old Persian, Avestan , and Median. The first two are the only languages in that group to have left written original texts, while Median

825-414: Is known mostly from loanwords in Old Persian. By the 4th century BCE, the late Achaemenid period , the inscriptions of Artaxerxes II and Artaxerxes III differ enough from the language of Darius' inscriptions to be called a "pre-Middle Persian," or "post-Old Persian." Old Persian subsequently evolved into Middle Persian , which is in turn the ancestor of New Persian . Professor Gilbert Lazard ,

880-678: Is now Iran , Romania ( Gherla ), Armenia , Bahrain , Iraq , Turkey and Egypt , with the most important attestation by far being the contents of the Behistun Inscription (dated to 525 BCE). In 2007, research into the vast Persepolis Fortification Archive at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago unearthed Old Persian tablets, which suggest Old Persian was a written language in use for practical recording and not only for royal display. As

935-626: Is the famous example belonging to the Black Prince and hung with other "achievements" over his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral . His wooden shield also has the heraldic animals appliqued in cuir bouilli. As well as the crests on helmets described above, cuir bouilli was probably used sculpturally in various contexts, over a wood or plaster framework where necessary. When Henry V of England died in France, his effigy in cuir bouilli

990-840: The Eran-Spahbad (Commander in Chief) and the Emperor himself. They would be guarded heavily by cataphract style cavalry. The post of aswaran sardar was held by a member of the House of Mihran . Parts of the aswaran division were high-ranking including the Pushtigban Body Guards , a super heavy shock cavalry, who were the royal guards of the Shah himself. The influential aswaran cavalry were mostly made up of heavily armoured cavalry, generally composed of aristocracy or even from

1045-559: The Middle Ages and Early Modern Period and used for various purposes. It was leather that had been treated so that it became tough and rigid, as well as able to hold moulded decoration. It was the usual material for the robust carrying-cases that were made for important pieces of metalwork, instruments such as astrolabes , personal sets of cutlery, books, pens and the like. It was used for some armour , being both much cheaper and much lighter than plate armour , but could not withstand

1100-484: The Sasanian period. Also horses would probably have had armored chests and heads, consisting of an apron and headpiece , or total body protection consisting of five separate pieces, made from either boiled leather or scale armor . Some asbaran units such as mercenaries may have worn little to no armor at all, allowing them to be rather more swift, silent, and mobile. The Spangenhelm helmets worn by members of

1155-709: The Sasanian Empire ). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as ariya (Iranian). Old Persian is close to both Avestan and the language of the Rig Veda , the oldest form of the Sanskrit language. All three languages are highly inflected . Old Persian appears primarily in the inscriptions, clay tablets and seals of the Achaemenid era ( c.  600 BCE to 300 BCE). Examples of Old Persian have been found in what

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1210-550: The asbar had the same status as the knight. However, although the asbaran and knight resemble each other in many parts, the economic role and historical role of the knight is very different compared to the role of the asbaran in the Sasanian Empire, which thus makes it incorrect to refer the asbaran as knights. The highest annual salary for each cavalryman was 4,000 dirhams . The aswaran wore chainmail armor , and ranged from archers to cataphracts . They assumed

1265-518: The asbaran units in battle would have evolved through the centuries. During the 3rd to 6th century AD of the Sassanian empire, the Spangenhelm would have probably been made of felt and hardened leather. However, by the late 6th to early 7th century AD, they would have been decorated with flowers and purple ball with mail and small areas through which to breathe and see. The asbaran cavalry

1320-522: The Great. Although it is true that the oldest attested Old Persian inscriptions are found on the Behistun monument from Darius, the creation of this "new type of writing" seems, according to Schmitt, "to have begun already under Cyrus the Great ". The script shows a few changes in the shape of characters during the period it was used. This can be seen as a standardization of the heights of wedges, which in

1375-583: The Rhine had six sets of cuir bouilli horse armour for his and his family's use in the 16th century. Often the shaffron for the horse's head would be in steel, though leather ones are also known. Cuir bouilli was also very common for scabbards . However surviving specimens of leather armour are rare, more so than the various types of civilian containers. It is believed that many leather pieces are depicted in sculpted tomb monuments , where they are more highly decorated than metal pieces would have been. Cuir bouilli

1430-468: The Romans to adopt aspects of Sasanian cavalry including their arms, armour, and techniques. The asbaran during this early period had much in common with their Parthian (Arsacid) predecessors, most of whom would have worn a scale armor cuirass with long sleeves and chaps covered in scale armor or, less often, plated mail . Their helmets, of the Spangenhelm type, would have been adapted throughout

1485-495: The area of Lake Urmia in the records of Shalmaneser III . The exact identity of the Parsuwash is not known for certain, but from a linguistic viewpoint the word matches Old Persian pārsa itself coming directly from the older word *pārćwa . Also, as Old Persian contains many words from another extinct Iranian language, Median , according to P. O. Skjærvø it is probable that Old Persian had already been spoken before

1540-562: The army of Asbaran would have the Derafsh Kaviani as their banner. Some aswaran members with superior bravery, character, and equestrian skills were receiving honorary bracelets, recorded in Islamic sources as suwārī , with the wearer being called a musawwar . The aswaran sardar were high-ranking officers who were in charge of the aswaran , their position was so high up in Sasanian society that they were only answerable to

1595-622: The beginning (i.e. in DB ) took only half the height of a line. The following phonemes are expressed in the Old Persian script: Notes: Lycian 𐊋𐊆𐊈𐊈𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Kizzaprñna ~ 𐊈𐊆𐊖𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊑𐊏𐊀 Zisaprñna for (genuine) Old Persian *Ciçafarnā (besides the Median form *Ciθrafarnah ) = Tissaphernes suggests /t͡s/ as the pronunciation of ç (compare [1] and Kloekhorst 2008, p. 125 in [2] for this example, who, however, mistakenly writes Çiçafarnā , which contradicts

1650-419: The cavalry and the infantry of the military. A system which disperses soldiers to estates outside the main fighting season does slow down mobilization and limit opportunities for unit drill, but it also provides on-the-spot capability to respond to local uprisings, brigandage or raids. Moreover, it uses resources more efficiently, since it is much cheaper to move a horseman to 3,000 kg of grain and hay than to do

1705-510: The developments that were peculiar to Old Persian. Median forms "are found only in personal or geographical names [...] and some are typically from religious vocabulary and so could in principle also be influenced by Avestan ." "Sometimes, both Median and Old Persian forms are found, which gave Old Persian a somewhat confusing and inconsistent look: 'horse,' for instance, is [attested in Old Persian as] both asa (OPers.) and aspa (Med.)." Old Persian texts were written from left to right in

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1760-408: The epenthetic vowel mentioned above), where it became /ɡ/ . This suggests that it was really pronounced as [w] . Old Persian has 3 types of grammatical number: singular, dual and plural. Old Persian has three grammatical genders : masculine, feminine and neuter. In contrast, Modern Persian (as well as Middle Persian ) is a genderless language . Old Persian stems: Adjectives are declined in

1815-589: The etymology [ PIIr. *Čitra-swarnas- ] and the Middle Persian form Čehrfar [ ç gives Middle Persian s ]). The phoneme /l/ does not occur in native Iranian vocabulary, only in borrowings from Akkadian (a new /l/ develops in Middle Persian from Old Persian /rd/ and the change of /rθ/ to /hl/ ). The phoneme /r/ can also form a syllable peak; both the way Persian names with syllabic /r/ (such as Brdiya ) are rendered in Elamite and its further development in Middle Persian suggest that before

1870-565: The formation of the Achaemenid Empire and was spoken during most of the first half of the first millennium BCE. Old Persian belongs to the Iranian language family , a branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, itself within the large family of Indo-European languages . The common ancestors of Indo-Iranians came from Central Asia sometime in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE . The extinct and unattested Median language

1925-568: The imperial family themselves. There were also commanders who were elite as well. These parts of the aswaran regiments were kept as reserves. Most of the asbaran was disbanded after suffering defeat and conquest during the Muslim conquest of Persia . However, several factions of the asbaran , each faction led by a different leader, defected to the Arabs in order to preserve their status and wealth. These asbaran factions settled in various places in

1980-448: The name of the Sasanian emperor and their valuable family members on their arrows as a good omen. They outperformed others in archery to the extent that later writers thought that they had introduced the profession. They were superior and unmatched in the profession, which was even acknowledged by their enemies. The major effectiveness of the Sasanian cavalry was noted by contemporaneous Roman writers, including Ammianus Marcellinus , and led

2035-416: The newly established Muslim territories, where they each become known by several names, the most known and prominent faction being the asawira , who under their leader Siyah settled in the newly established settlement of Basra . Old Persian Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan ) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of

2090-550: The official language of the Achaemenid kings. Assyrian records, which in fact appear to provide the earliest evidence for ancient Iranian (Persian and Median) presence on the Iranian Plateau, give a good chronology but only an approximate geographical indication of what seem to be ancient Persians. In these records of the 9th century BCE, Parsuwash (along with Matai , presumably Medians) are first mentioned in

2145-529: The original silver was melted down for church plate to replace that looted in the Sack of Rome in 1527. It seems likely that the leather was moulded directly from the original and it is possible that the wooden core underneath is actually the Carolingian original, with the leather replacing the sheets of silver originally fitted over the wood. Cuir bouilli has also been employed to bind books , mainly between

2200-563: The other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan , Parthian , Soghdian , Kurdish , Pashto , etc., Old, Middle and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran. Middle Persian , also sometimes called Pahlavi,

2255-552: The reverse. The aswaran were primarily composed of Iranian aristocrats from the wuzurgan and the azadan , with members of the staff being from the former. After the reforms of Khosraw I , warriors from the dehqan class would also be enlisted. The asbaran have often been demonstrated as an example of existence of feudalism in Iran by modern scholars, who simply refer them as either chevalier , knight , or ritter . According to historians such as Christensen and Widengren,

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2310-799: The risk to life, and in 1278 Edward I of England organized one in Windsor Great Park at which cuir bouilli armour was worn, and the king provided swords made of whale bone and parchment . The account of the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 by Jean de Wavrin , who was present on the French side, describes the crucial force of English longbowmen as having on their heads either cuir bouilli helmets, or wicker with iron strips, or nothing (the last, he says, were also barefoot). A few pieces of Roman horse armour in cuir bouilli have been excavated. Evidence from documents such as inventories show that it

2365-407: The sonne shoon, Or as the moone light. His jambeaux were of cuir-bouilli, His sword sheath was of ivory, His helm of latten bright, His saddle was of rewel bone, And as the sun his bridle shone, Or as the full moonlight. (Note: jambeaux are greaves – shin armour). The large decorative crests that came to top some helmets in the late Middle Ages were often made of cuir bouilli, as

2420-747: The syllabic /r/ , an epenthetic vowel [i] had developed already in the Old Persian period, which later became [u] after labials. For example, Old Persian Vᵃ-rᵃ-kᵃ-a-nᵃ /wr̩kaːna/ is rendered in Elamite as Mirkānu- , rendering transcriptions such as V(a)rakāna , Varkāna or even Vurkāna questionable and making Vrkāna or Virkāna much more realistic (and equally for vrka- "wolf", Brdiya and other Old Persian words and names with syllabic /r/ ). While v usually became /v/ in Middle Persian, it became /b/ word-initially in New Persian, except before [u] (including

2475-425: The syllabic Old Persian cuneiform script and had 36 phonetic characters and 8 logograms . The usage of logograms is not obligatory. The script was surprisingly not a result of evolution of the script used in the nearby civilisation of Mesopotamia . Despite the fact that Old Persian was written in cuneiform script, the script was not a direct continuation of Mesopotamian tradition and in fact, according to Schmitt,

2530-614: The unique advantage that it can, in extremis, provide some nutrition" when actually boiled. Josephus records that the Jewish defenders in the Siege of Jerusalem in AD ;70 were reduced to eating their shields and other leather kit, as was the Spanish expedition of Tristan de Luna in 1559. Versions of cuir bouilli were used since ancient times, especially for shields, in many parts of

2585-555: The way metal does, firemen continued to use boiled leather helmets until World War II, and the invention of strong plastics . The word cuirass for a breastplate indicates that these were originally made of leather. In the Late Middle Ages , the heyday of plate armour, cuir bouilli continued to be used even by the rich for horse armour and often for tournament armour, as well as by ordinary infantry soldiers. Tournaments were increasingly regulated in order to reduce

2640-520: The world. Although in general leather does not survive long burial, and excavated archaeological evidence for it is rare, an Irish shield of cuir bouilli with wooden formers, deposited in a peat bog , has survived for some 2,500 years. It was commonly used in the Western world for helmets ; the pickelhaube , the standard German helmet, was not replaced by a steel stahlhelm until 1916, in the midst of World War I . As leather does not conduct heat

2695-403: Was a "deliberate creation of the sixth century BCE". The origin of the Old Persian cuneiform script and the identification of the date and process of introduction are a matter of debate among Iranian scholars with no general agreement having been reached. The factors making the consensus difficult are, among others, the difficult passage DB (IV lines 88–92) from Darius the Great who speaks of

2750-526: Was also often used for elaborate figurative crests on some helmets. The material is mentioned in Froissart's Chronicles of the Hundred Years' War , and Geoffrey Chaucer , in his Canterbury Tales , written in the late 1300s, says of the knight Sir Thopas : Hise jambeux were of quyrboilly, His swerdes shethe of yvory, His helm of laton bright, His sadel was of rewel-boon, His brydel as

2805-491: Was armed with a variety of weapons. The traditional heavy cavalry weapons, such as maces , lances , and swords would have been used, as well as a variety of other weapons, such as axes. Asbaran cavalry were not, however, restricted to short-range weapons, as they often carried weapons such as darts and bows . The Sasanian cavalry's weaponry has been listed by Libanius as darts, sabres (scimitars?), spears, swords and "a lance which needed both hands". The nawak arrow-guide

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2860-657: Was common in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance, and used by the highest ranks, but survivals are very few. In 1547 the Master of Armoury in the Tower of London ordered 46 sets of bards and crinets in preparation for the final invasion of Scotland in the war known as the Rough Wooing . In September that year the English cavalry were crucial in the decisive victory at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh . The German Count Palatine of

2915-514: Was extremely expensive and too heavy for much to be worn by infantry (as opposed to knights fighting on horseback) . However, cuir bouilli could be reinforced against slashing blows by the addition of metal bands or strips, especially in helmets. Modern experiments on simple cuir bouilli have shown that it can reduce the depth of an arrow wound considerably, especially if coated with a crushed mineral facing mixed with glue, as one medieval Arab author recommended. In addition, "armour based on hide has

2970-492: Was placed on top of his coffin for the journey back to England. A near life-size crucifix in the Vatican Museums is in cuir bouilli over wood. This is of special interest to art historians because it was made in 1540 as a replica of a crucifix in silver presented by Charlemagne some 740 years before; an object of great interest as possibly the first of the long line of monumental crucifixes in Western art. In 1540,

3025-497: Was used to launch 10–40 cm (3.9–15.7 in) long darts. During Khosrow I 's military reforms under Babak , a "list" for equipment for the cavalry was written. According to the Arabic and Persian sources of the Islamic period, the pieces of equipment ( Middle Persian : zēn ) for a regular Sasanian cavalryman were as follows: The Sasanian lance was based on the 12 ft (3.7 m) long Parthian kontos that featured

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