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79-928: In December 1915, the Aulihan raided some Samburu who had taken their herds into the Lorian Swamp , stealing several thousand cattle. The British , preoccupied with military operations against the Germans in German East Africa , were slow to respond. After their post at Sarinley in Jubaland was sacked, the British withdrew from their other posts in the northeast frontier region of the East African Protectorate . The Aulihan attempted to get other clans involved in their struggle against

158-480: A Nilotic people of north-central Kenya . Traditionally, they are semi- nomadic pastoralists who primarily herd cattle but also keep sheep, goats and camels. They refer to themselves as Lokop or Loikop , a term with varied interpretations among the Samburu. Some believe it means "owners of the land" ("lo" meaning ownership and "nkop" meaning land) while others have different interpretations. The Samburu speak

237-481: A dorsal slit ), which remains until blood flow has stopped. Finally, the foreskin is amputated . For older babies and adults, circumcision is often performed surgically without specialized instruments, and alternatives such as Unicirc or the Shang ring are available. The circumcision procedure causes pain, and for neonates this pain may interfere with mother-infant interaction or cause other behavioral changes, so

316-528: A 2014 review, the effect of circumcision on sexual partners' experiences is unclear as this has not been well studied. According to a policy statement from the Canadian Paediatric Society that was reaffirmed in 2021, "medical studies do not support circumcision as having an impact on sexual function or satisfaction for partners of circumcised individuals". There are popular misconceptions that circumcision benefits or adversely impacts

395-405: A comprehensive program for prevention of HIV transmission in areas with high endemic rates of HIV, as long as the program includes " informed consent , confidentiality , and absence of coercion " — known as voluntary medical male circumcision, or VMMC. In 2010, this was expanded to routine neonatal circumcision, as long as those undergoing the procedure received assent from their parents. In 2020,

474-569: A contributing cause of the Bar Kokhba revolt . According to Silverman (2006), these restrictions were part of a "broad campaign" by the Romans to "civilize" the Jewish people, viewing the practice as repulsive and analogous to castration . His successor, Antoninus Pius , altered the edict to permit Brit Milah . During this period in history, Jewish circumcision called for the removal of only

553-668: A mark of distinction for the elite: the Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the sun god Ra as having circumcised himself. Circumcision is prominent in the Hebrew Bible . In addition to proposing that circumcision was adopted by the Israelites purely as a religious mandate, scholars have suggested that Judaism's patriarchs and their followers adopted circumcision to make penile hygiene easier in hot, sandy climates; as

632-408: A part of the prepuce, and Hellenized Jews often attempted to look uncircumcised by stretching the extant parts of their foreskins. This was considered by the Jewish leaders to be a serious problem, and during the second century CE they changed the requirements of Jewish circumcision to call for the complete removal of the foreskin, emphasizing the Jewish view of circumcision as intended to be not just

711-671: A placebo, but the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) states that such methods are insufficient alone and should be used to supplement more effective techniques. A quicker procedure reduces duration of pain; use of the Mogen clamp was found to result in a shorter procedure time and less pain-induced stress than the use of the Gomco clamp or the Plastibell. The available evidence does not indicate that post-procedure pain management

790-408: A practice referred to as "beading", and are not allowed to have children. Samburu religion traditionally focuses on their multi-faceted divinity ( Nkai ). Nkai (a feminine noun), plays an active role in the lives of contemporary Samburu. It is not uncommon for children and young people, especially women, to report visions of Nkai. Some of these children prophesy for some period of time and a few gain

869-436: A reduced risk of cervical cancer (which is caused by a type of HPV) in female partners of men. There is some evidence that circumcision is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer . A 2017 systematic review found consistent evidence that male circumcision prior to heterosexual contact was associated with a decreased risk of cervical cancer, cervical dysplasia , HSV-2, chlamydia, and syphilis among women. The evidence

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948-438: A reputation for prophecy throughout their lives. Besides these spontaneous prophets, Samburu have ritual diviners, or shamans , called ' loibonok ' who divine the causes of individual illnesses and misfortune, and guide warriors. Samburu believe that Nkai is the source of all protection from the hazards of their existence. But Nkai also inflicts punishment if an elder curses a junior for some show of disrespect. The elder’s anger

1027-606: A rite of passage into adulthood; or as a form of blood sacrifice. Historical campaigns of ethnic, cultural, and religious persecution frequently included bans on circumcision as a means of forceful assimilation, conversion, and ethnocide . Alexander the Great conquered the Middle East in the fourth century BCE, and in the following centuries ancient Greek cultures and values came to the Middle East. The Greeks abhorred circumcision, making life for circumcised Jews living among

1106-453: A significant number of those infections stemming from heterosexual transmission. As a result, the promotion of prophylactic circumcision has been a priority intervention in that region since the WHO's 2007 recommendations. The International Antiviral Society–USA also suggests circumcision be discussed with men who have insertive anal sex with men , especially in regions where HIV is common. There

1185-428: A spiritual concept, arguing literal circumcision to be unnecessary for Gentile converts to Christianity. The teaching that circumcision was unnecessary for membership in a divine covenant was instrumental to the separation of Christianity from Judaism. While the circumcision of Jesus is celebrated as a feast day in the liturgical calendar of many Christian denominations . Although it is not explicitly mentioned in

1264-423: A strong protective effect against penile cancer in later life. Penile cancer is a rare disease in the developed world but much more prevalent in the developing world . The penile tissue removed during circumcision is a potential origin for penile cancer. Risk-benefit considerations around the use of circumcision as a cancer-preventive measure are a source of debate. Penile cancer development can be detected in

1343-559: A tradition that the first man who practiced circumcision in Nandi is said to have been one Kipkenyo who came from a country called Do (in other accounts To, indicating the intervocalic Kalenjin *d sound – closest pronunciation Tto). The story goes that Kipkenyo had a number of brothers and sisters who all died when they reached puberty, so Kipkenyo decided when he had a number of children of his own to 'change' them all at this age. He therefore circumcised them, and as none of his children died,

1422-467: Is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health. The procedure is associated with reduced rates of sexually transmitted infections and urinary tract infections . This includes reducing the incidence of cancer-causing forms of human papillomavirus (HPV) and significantly reducing HIV transmission among heterosexual men in high-risk populations; its prophylactic efficacy against HIV transmission in

1501-489: Is a consensus among the world's major medical organizations and in the academic literature that circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention in high-risk populations if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions. In 2007, the WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) stated that they recommended adolescent and adult circumcision as part of

1580-480: Is a potential hoops star who would propel Bacon to a college head coaching job. Samburu extras were used to portray members of the closely related, but better known, Maasai ethnic group as in the film The Ghost and the Darkness , starring Michael Douglas and Val Kilmer. The 2005 film The White Masai — about a Swiss woman falling in love with a Samburu man— similarly conflates the two ethnic groups, mainly because

1659-473: Is a risk that the circumcision scar may be tender. There is no good evidence that circumcision affects cognitive abilities. Circumcision is the oldest known surgical procedure. Depictions of circumcised penises are found in Paleolithic art , predating the earliest signs of trepanation . The history of the migration and evolution of circumcision is known mainly from the cultures of two regions. In

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1738-625: Is a staple of contemporary Samburu diet. Blood is both taken from living animals, and collected from slaughtered ones. There are at least thirteen ways that blood can be prepared, and may form a whole meal. Some Samburu have turned to agriculture, with varying results. Samburu practice both circumsision and female genital mutilation , which is illegal in Kenya. Boys get circumcised in their teenage years, and most girls are subjected to genital cutting before marriage. Girls who have not yet undergone female circumcision are at risk of being raped as part of

1817-405: Is also used to treat various pathologies. These include pathological phimosis , refractory balanoposthitis and chronic or recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs). Circumcision is contraindicated in certain cases. These include infants with certain genital structure abnormalities, such as a misplaced urethral opening (as in hypospadias and epispadias ), curvature of the head of

1896-727: Is at the expense of unmarried younger men, whose development up to the age of thirty is in a state of social suspension, prolonging their adolescent status. Traditionally, Samburu men wear a cloth which is often pink or black and is wrapped around their waist. They adorn themselves with necklaces, bracelets and anklets, like other sub tribes of the Maasai community. Members of the moran age grade (i.e. "warriors") typically wear their hair in long braids, which they shave off when they become elders. It may be colored using red ochre. Their bodies are sometimes decorated with ochre, as well. Women wear two pieces of blue or purple cloth, one piece wrapped around

1975-442: Is evidence that circumcision is associated with a reduced risk of HIV infection for such men, particularly in low-income countries. The finding that circumcision significantly reduces female-to-male HIV transmission has prompted medical organizations serving communities affected by endemic HIV/AIDS to promote circumcision as an additional method of controlling the spread of HIV. Major medical organizations hold varying positions on

2054-547: Is extended with forceps , then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised . Topical or locally injected anesthesia is generally used to reduce pain and physiologic stress . Circumcision is generally electively performed , most commonly done as a form of preventive healthcare , as a religious obligation , or as a cultural practice . It is also an option for cases of phimosis , other pathologies that do not resolve with other treatments, and chronic urinary tract infections (UTIs). The procedure

2133-504: Is known about that history. It has been speculated that circumcision originated as a substitute for castration of defeated enemies or as a religious sacrifice . In many traditions, it acts as a rite of passage marking a boy's entrance into adulthood . At Oued Djerat , in Algeria , engraved rock art with masked bowmen, which feature male circumcision and may be a scene involving ritual, have been dated to earlier than 6000 BP amid

2212-573: Is meatal stenosis, this is almost exclusively seen in circumcised children, it is thought to be caused by ammonia producing bacteria coming into contact with the meatus in circumcised infants. It can be treated by meatotomy . Effective pain management should be used during the procedure. Inadequate pain relief may carry the risks of heightened pain response for newborns. Newborns that experience pain due to being circumcised have different responses to vaccines given afterwards, with higher pain scores observed. For adult men who have been circumcised, there

2291-417: Is needed. For adults, topical anesthesia , ring block, dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) and general anesthesia are all options, and the procedure requires four to six weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse to allow the wound to heal. Male circumcision reduces the risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission from HIV positive women to men in high risk populations. In 2020,

2370-469: Is often considered superior. Meat from cattle is eaten mainly on ceremonial occasions, or when a cow happens to die. Meat from small stock is eaten more commonly, though still not on a regular basis. Today Samburu rely increasingly on purchased agricultural products— with money acquired mainly from livestock sales— and most commonly maize meal is made into a porridge. Tea is also very common, taken with large quantities of sugar and (when possible) much milk, and

2449-695: Is seen as an appeal to Nkai, and it is Nkai who decides if the curse is justified. Faced with misfortune and following some show of disrespect towards an older man, the victim should approach his senior and offer reparation in return for his blessing. This calms the elder's anger and restores Nkai’s protection. It is, however, uncommon for an elder to curse a junior. Curses are reserved for cases of extreme disrespect. Many Samburu have become Christians. Samburu have been widely portrayed in popular culture, ranging from Hollywood movies, major television commercials, and mainstream journalism. Such portrayals make use of Samburu’s colorful cultural traditions, but sometimes at

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2528-407: Is the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans penis. At birth, the foreskin cannot be retracted due to adhesions between the foreskin and glans, and this is considered normal (physiological phimosis). Over time the foreskin naturally separates from the glans, and a majority of boys are able to retract the foreskin by age three. Less than one percent are still having problems at age 18. If

2607-966: The Bubaline Period ; more specifically, while possibly dating much earlier than 10,000 BP, rock art walls from the Bubaline Period have been dated between 9200 BP and 5500 BP. The cultural practice of circumcision may have spread from the Central Sahara , toward the south in Sub-Saharan Africa and toward the east in the region of the Nile . Based on engraved evidence found on walls and evidence from mummies , circumcision has been dated to at least as early as 6000 BCE in ancient Egypt . Some ancient Egyptian mummies , which have been dated as early as 4000 BCE, show evidence of circumcision. Evidence suggests that circumcision

2686-853: The Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), taking control of the Lower Jubba. In the mid-1990s there was a split within the Ogadeen, with the Aulihan led by General Nur Gebiyo joining with General Hersi Morgan 's Harti-based faction of the SPM.The strongest sub clan of the Ogaden By 2000, Senior Olow Aulyahan branches to nine sub clans which is divided into three categories Sources Samburu people Modern ethnicities Diaspora Performing arts Government agencies Television Radio Newspapers The Samburu are

2765-486: The World Health Organization (WHO) reiterated that male circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions. Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the most commonly transmitted sexually transmitted infection , affecting both men and women. While most infections are asymptomatic and are cleared by the immune system , some types of

2844-488: The developed world or among men who have sex with men is debated. Neonatal circumcision decreases the risk of penile cancer . Complication rates increase significantly with age. Bleeding, infection, and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin are the most common acute complications, while meatal stenosis is the most common long-term. There are various cultural, social , and ethical views on circumcision. Major medical organizations hold variant views on

2923-413: The prophylactic efficacy of the elective circumcision of minors in the context of developed countries . Literature on the matter is polarized, with the cost-benefit analysis being highly dependent on the kinds and frequencies of health problems in the population under discussion and how circumcision affects them. The World Health Organization (WHO), UNAIDS , and American medical organizations take

3002-535: The 1850s and subsequently widely spread, becoming predominately established as a way to prevent sexually transmitted infections. Beyond use as a prophylactic or treatment option in healthcare, circumcision plays a major role in many of the world's cultures and religions, most prominently Judaism and Islam . Circumcision is among the most important commandments in Judaism . It is widespread in Australia, Canada,

3081-506: The DPNB. They are more effective than EMLA (eutectic mixture of local anesthetics) cream, which is more effective than a placebo . Topical creams have been found to irritate the skin of low birth weight infants, so penile nerve block techniques are recommended in this group. For infants, non-pharmacological methods such as the use of a comfortable, padded chair and a sucrose or non-sucrose pacifier are more effective at reducing pain than

3160-497: The Egyptians for hygienic reasons, but also was part of their obsession with purity and was associated with spiritual and intellectual development. No well-accepted theory explains the significance of circumcision to the Egyptians, but it appears to have been endowed with great honor and importance as a rite of passage , performed in a public ceremony emphasizing the continuation of family generations and fertility. It may have been

3239-733: The Greeks and later the Romans very difficult. Restrictions on the Jewish practice by European governments have occurred several times in world history, including the Seleucid Empire under Antiochus IV and the Roman Empire under Hadrian , where it was used as a means of forceful assimilation and conversion . Antiochus IV's restriction on Jewish circumcision was a major factor in the Maccabean Revolt . Hadrian 's prohibition has also been considered by some to have been

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3318-497: The Nandi followed his example, with the result that circumcision became general. This corresponds with linguistic studies which indicate significant cultural transfer between Southern Nilotes and Eastern Cushites during a time of intensive interaction prior to Southern Nilotic settlement in western Kenya. The Samburu are a gerontocracy . The power of elders is linked to the belief in their curse, underpinning their monopoly over arranging marriages and taking on further wives. This

3397-579: The Samburu dialect of the Maa language , a Nilotic language which is also spoken by 22 other sub tribes of the Maa community commonly known as the Maasai . Some suggest that the Samburu are a distinct tribe separate from the Maasai, a view that some Samburu people accept today. Samburu National Reserve is one of the well known wildlife conservation areas in Kenya. Within the Maa community of Kenya and Tanzania,

3476-608: The Samburu man was saying “I don’t want these. Give me big shoes.” Nike, in explaining the error, admitted to having improvised the dialogue and stated “we thought nobody in America would know what he said." A tribe in season 3 of the U.S. reality television series Survivor , which was filmed in Kenya in 2001, was named Samburu. In a 2009 article MSNBC took readers on a tour through places purported to be in Samburu County , while asserting that conflicts between Samburu and

3555-546: The Samburu sub-tribe is the third largest, following the Kisonko (Isikirari) of Tanzania and Purko of Kenya and Tanzania. Woto (sometimes Otto, *Do, To and Do) is a location which Samburu consider to be their homeland. Woto means north in Samburu . The exact location is unknown. It has generally been identified as being north of Lake Turkana and has been postulated to be somewhere in southern Ethiopia . The Nandi have

3634-472: The USA. These follow the same basic procedure. First, the amount of foreskin to be removed is estimated. The practitioner opens the foreskin via the preputial orifice to reveal the glans underneath and ensures it is normal before bluntly separating the inner lining of the foreskin ( preputial epithelium ) from its attachment to the glans. The practitioner then places the circumcision device (this sometimes requires

3713-474: The United States, South Korea, most of Africa, and parts of Asia. It is relatively rare for non-religious reasons in parts of Southern Africa, Latin America, Europe, and parts of Asia. The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty, but the oldest documentation comes from ancient Egypt . Around half of all circumcisions worldwide are performed for reasons of prophylactic healthcare. There

3792-518: The United States. Minor complications are reported to occur in three percent of procedures. Severe complications are rare. A specific complication rate is difficult to determine due to scant data on complications and inconsistencies in their classification. Complication rates are greater when the procedure is performed by an inexperienced operator, in unsterile conditions, or when the child is at an older age. Significant acute complications happen rarely, occurring in about 1 in 500 newborn procedures in

3871-579: The United States. Severe to catastrophic complications, including death, are so rare that they are reported only as individual case reports. Where a Plastibell device is used, the most common complication is the retention of the device occurring in around 3.5% of procedures. Other possible complications include buried penis , chordee , phimosis, skin bridges , urethral fistulas, and meatal stenosis . These complications may be partly avoided with proper technique, and are often treatable without requiring surgical revision. The most common long-term complication

3950-528: The World Health Organization again concluded that male circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention and that the promotion of male circumcision is an essential strategy, in addition to other preventive measures, for the prevention of heterosexually acquired HIV infection in men. Eastern and southern Africa had a particularly low prevalence of circumcised males. This region has a disproportionately high HIV infection rate, with

4029-459: The authors and directors believed that no one would have heard of Samburu. Dancing Samburu were included in a MasterCard commercial. Samburu runners were famously portrayed in a late 1980s Nike commercial, in which a Samburu man's words were translated into English as the Nike slogan “Just Do It.” This was corrected by anthropologist Lee Cronk, who seeing the commercial alerted Nike and the media that

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4108-405: The battles for pasture have led to both sides invading the private ranches and nature conservancies of Laikipia County . The armed conflict was incited by politicians who use it to improve their credentials among pastoralist communities. Circumsision Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis . In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin

4187-673: The carcinoma in situ (CIS) cancerous precursor stage and at the more advanced invasive squamous cell carcinoma stage. There is an association between adult circumcision and an increased risk of invasive penile cancer; this is believed to be from men being circumcised as a treatment for penile cancer or a condition that is a precursor to cancer rather than a consequence of circumcision itself. Penile cancer has been observed to be nearly eliminated in populations of males circumcised neonatally. Important risk factors for penile cancer include phimosis and HPV infection, both of which are mitigated by circumcision. The mitigating effect circumcision has on

4266-464: The colonial period, cow, goat, and sheep milk was the daily staple. Oral and documentary evidence suggests that small stock were significant to the diet and economy at least from the eighteenth century forward. In the twenty-first century, cattle and small stock continue to be essential to the Samburu economy and social system. Milk is still a valued part of Samburu contemporary diet when available, and may be drunk either fresh, or fermented; "ripened" milk

4345-517: The colonialists, but were not successful. Eventually, in September 1917 the British sent an expedition that re-occupied Serenli, and followed up with successful operations against the northern Aulihan who capitulated on 15 January 1918. Further ruthless operations against southern Aulihan were completed in March 1918. In the late 1980s the Aulihan, Mohamed Zubeyr and other Ogadeen clansmen had formed

4424-408: The development of phimosis. Phimosis is also a complication that can result from circumcision. An inflammation of the glans penis and foreskin is called balanoposthitis, and the condition affecting the glans alone is called balanitis . Most cases of these conditions occur in uncircumcised males, affecting 4–11% of that group. The moist, warm space underneath the foreskin is thought to facilitate

4503-468: The expense of accuracy. One of the earlier film appearances by Samburu was in the 1953 John Ford classic Mogambo , in which they served as background for stars such as Clark Gable, Grace Kelly and Ava Gardner. In the 1990s, 300 Samburu traveled to South Africa to play opposite Kevin Bacon in the basketball comedy The Air Up There , in which Samburu are portrayed as a group called “The Winabi” whose prince

4582-598: The fulfillment of a Biblical commandment but also an essential and permanent mark of membership in a people. A narrative in the Christian Gospel of Luke makes a brief mention of the circumcision of Jesus , but physical circumcision is not part of the received teachings of Jesus. Circumcision has played an important role in Christian history and theology . Paul the Apostle reinterpreted circumcision as

4661-445: The growth of pathogens, particularly when hygiene is poor. Yeasts, especially Candida albicans , are the most common penile infection and are rarely identified in samples taken from circumcised males. Both conditions are usually treated with topical antibiotics (metronidazole cream) and antifungals (clotrimazole cream) or low-potency steroid creams. Circumcision is a treatment option for refractory or recurrent balanoposthitis, but in

4740-454: The inability to do so becomes problematic (pathological phimosis) circumcision is a treatment option. This pathological phimosis may be due to scarring from the skin disease balanitis xerotica obliterans (BXO), repeated episodes of balanoposthitis or forced retraction of the foreskin. Steroid creams are also a reasonable option and may prevent the need for surgery including in those with mild BXO. The procedure may also be used to prevent

4819-513: The incidence of UTIs in boys under two years of age, and there is fair evidence that the reduction in incidence is by a factor of 3–10 times (100 circumcisions prevents one UTI). Circumcision is most likely to benefit boys who have a high risk of UTIs due to anatomical defects, and may be used to treat recurrent UTIs. There is a plausible biological explanation for the reduction in UTI risk after circumcision. The orifice through which urine passes at

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4898-771: The lands south and east of the Mediterranean, starting with Central Sahara, Sudan and Ethiopia, the procedure was practiced by the ancient Egyptians and the Semites , and then by the Jews and Muslims. In Oceania, circumcision is practiced by the Australian Aboriginals and Polynesians . There is also evidence that circumcision was practiced among the Aztec and Mayan civilizations in the Americas, but little

4977-413: The likelihood of multiple infections. As of 2012 , there was no strong evidence that it reduces the rate of new HPV infection, but the procedure is associated with increased clearance of the virus by the body, which can account for the finding of reduced prevalence. Although genital warts are caused by a type of HPV, there is no statistically significant relationship between being circumcised and

5056-449: The neighboring Pokot people was the result of both sides starving because they had more cattle than the rangelands could support. Armed conflict between the Samburu and Pokot tribes has escalated since 2010 and it is almost entirely centered upon the declining pastures available for increasing cattle herd sizes, numbering now as many as 1,500 cattle in a single herd. With the recurrent droughts since 2010, and catastrophic drought of 2017,

5135-559: The neonatal period when it is less expensive and has a lower risk of complications. The American Academy of Pediatrics and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stated that the potential benefits of circumcision outweigh the risks. The World Health Organization in 2010 stated: There are significant benefits in performing male circumcision in early infancy, and programmes that promote early infant male circumcision are likely to have lower morbidity rates and lower costs than programmes targeting adolescent boys and men. Circumcision

5214-426: The penis ( chordee ), or ambiguous genitalia , because the foreskin may be needed for reconstructive surgery. Circumcision is contraindicated in premature infants and those who are not clinically stable and in good health. If an individual is known to have or has a family history of serious bleeding disorders such as hemophilia , it is recommended that the blood be checked for normal coagulation properties before

5293-408: The position that it carries prophylactic health benefits which outweigh the risks, while European medical organizations generally hold the belief that in these situations its medical benefits are not counterbalanced by risk. Advocates of circumcision consider it to have a net health benefit, and therefore feel that increasing the circumcision rate is "imperative". They recommend performing it during

5372-729: The presence of genital warts. Studies evaluating the effect of circumcision on the rates of other sexually transmitted infections have, generally, found it to be protective. A 2006 meta-analysis found that circumcision was associated with lower rates of syphilis , chancroid , and possibly genital herpes . A 2010 review found that circumcision reduced the incidence of HSV -2 (herpes simplex virus, type 2) infections by 28%. The researchers found mixed results for protection against trichomonas vaginalis and chlamydia trachomatis , and no evidence of protection against gonorrhea or syphilis. It may also possibly protect against syphilis in MSM. Phimosis

5451-513: The procedure is attempted. The foreskin is the double-layered fold of tissue at the distal end of the human penis that covers the glans and the urinary meatus . For adult medical circumcision, superficial wound healing takes up to a week, and complete healing 4 to 6 months. For infants, healing is usually complete within one week. For infant circumcision, devices such as the Gomco clamp , Plastibell and Mogen clamp are commonly used in

5530-407: The risk factor introduced by the possibility of phimosis is secondary, in that the removal of the foreskin eliminates the possibility of phimosis. This can be inferred from study results that show uncircumcised men with no history of phimosis are equally likely to have penile cancer as circumcised men. Circumcision is also associated with a reduced prevalence of cancer-causing types of HPV in men and

5609-403: The sexual pleasure of the circumcised person. Neonatal circumcision is generally a safe, low-risk procedure when done by an experienced practitioner. The most common acute complications are bleeding, infection and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin. These complications occur in approximately 0.13% of procedures, with bleeding being the most common acute complication in

5688-524: The strength of circumcision's prophylactic efficacy in developed countries. Some medical organizations take the position that it carries prophylactic health benefits which outweigh the risks, while other medical organizations generally hold the belief that in these situations its medical benefits are not counterbalanced by risk. Circumcision is one of the world's most common and oldest medical procedures. Prophylactic usage originated in England during

5767-432: The tip of the penis (the urinary meatus ) hosts more urinary system disease-causing bacteria in uncircumcised boys than in circumcised boys, especially in those under six months of age. As these bacteria are a risk factor for UTIs, circumcision may reduce the risk of UTIs through a decrease in the bacterial population. Not being circumcised is the primary risk factor for penile cancer . Pre-adolescent circumcision has

5846-404: The twenty-first century the availability of the other treatments has made it less necessary. A UTI affects parts of the urinary system including the urethra , bladder , and kidneys . There is about a one percent risk of UTIs in boys under two years of age, and the majority of incidents occur in the first year of life. There is good but not ideal evidence that circumcision of babies reduces

5925-407: The use of analgesia is advocated. Ordinary procedural pain may be managed in pharmacological and non-pharmacological ways. Pharmacological methods, such as localized or regional pain-blocking injections and topical analgesic creams, are safe and effective. The ring block and dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) are the most effective at reducing pain, and the ring block may be more effective than

6004-492: The virus cause genital warts , and other types, if untreated, cause various forms of cancer, including cervical cancer and penile cancer . Genital warts and cervical cancer are the two most common problems resulting from HPV. Circumcision is associated with a reduced prevalence of oncogenic types of HPV infection, meaning that a randomly selected circumcised man is less likely to be found infected with cancer-causing types of HPV than an uncircumcised man. It also decreases

6083-824: The waist, the second wrapped over the chest. Women keep their hair shaved and wear numerous necklaces and bracelets. In the past decade, clothing styles have changed. Some men may wear the 1980s-90s style of red tartan cloth or they may wear a dark green/blue plaid cloth around their waists called 'kikoi', often with shorts underneath. Marani (Lmuran) (warriors) wear a cloth that may be floral or pastel. Some women still wear two pieces of blue or red cloth, but it has become fashionable to wear cloths with animal or floral patterns in deep colors. Women may also often wear small tank tops with their cloths, and plaid skirts have also become common. Traditionally, Samburu relied almost solely on their herds, although trade with their agricultural neighbors and use of wild foods were also important. Before

6162-470: Was less consistent in regards to the potential association of circumcision with women's risk of HPV and HIV. The accumulated data show circumcision does not have an adverse physiological effect on sexual pleasure, function, desire, or fertility. There is some evidence that circumcision has no effect on pain with intercourse , premature ejaculation , intravaginal ejaculation latency time , erectile dysfunction or difficulties with orgasm . According to

6241-568: Was practiced in the Middle East by the fourth millennium BCE, when the Sumerians and the Semites moved into the area that is modern-day Iraq from the North and West. The earliest historical record of circumcision comes from Egypt, in the form of an image of the circumcision of an adult carved into the tomb of Ankh-Mahor at Saqqara , dating to about 2400–2300 BCE. Circumcision was possibly done by

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