48-601: Austin Frederic Harrison (1873–1928) was a British journalist and editor , best known for his editorship of The English Review from 1909 until 1923. Born in London, Harrison was the son of the author and jurist Frederic Harrison and his wife Ethel Bertha Harrison . Initially tutored by George Gissing , Harrison attended St Paul's School and Harrow School . After leaving school, he went to Switzerland and Germany to study foreign languages in preparation for
96-545: A "knowledge journalist" as a public intellectual who, like Walter Lippmann , Fareed Zakaria , Naomi Klein , Michael Pollan , and Andrew Revkin , sees their role as researching complicated issues of fact or science which most laymen would not have the time or access to information to research themselves, then communicating an accurate and understandable version to the public as a teacher and policy advisor. In his best-known books, Public Opinion (1922) and The Phantom Public (1925), Lippmann argued that most people lacked
144-436: A higher news value than positive news starts with the empirical observation that the human perceptive system and lower level brain functions have difficulty distinguishing between media stimuli and real stimuli. These lower level brain mechanisms which function on a subconscious level make basic evaluations of perceptive stimuli, focus attention on important stimuli, and start basic emotional reactions. Research has also found that
192-544: A home audience from the enemy in time of war , or conversely, to highlight the plight of a distant culture so as to encourage support for aid programs. In 2018, Hal Pashler and Gail Heriot published a study showing that perceptions of newsworthiness tend to be contaminated by a political usefulness bias. In other words, individuals tend to view stories that give them "ammunition" for their political views as more newsworthy. They give credence to their own views. An evolutionary psychology explanation for why negative news have
240-449: A list describing what they believed were significant contributing factors as to how the news is constructed. They proposed a "chain of news communication," which involves processes of selection (the more an event satisfies the "news factors," the more likely it is selected as news), distortion (accentuating the newsworthy factors of the event, once it has been selected), and replication (selection and distortion are repeated at all steps in
288-403: A professional journalist and a source can be rather complex, and a source can sometimes have an effect on an article written by the journalist. The article 'A Compromised Fourth Estate' uses Herbert Gans' metaphor to capture their relationship. He uses a dance metaphor, "The Tango", to illustrate the co-operative nature of their interactions inasmuch as "It takes two to tango". Herbert suggests that
336-406: A story, if defined in terms of the interest it carries for an audience, is determined by the degree of change it contains and the relevance that change has for the individual or group. Analysis shows that journalists and publicists manipulate both the element of change and relevance ('security concern') to maximize, or some cases play down, the strength of a story. Security concern is proportional to
384-544: Is a person who gathers information in the form of text, audio or pictures, processes it into a newsworthy form and disseminates it to the public. This is called journalism . Journalists can be broadcast, print, advertising or public relations personnel. Depending on the form of journalism, "journalist" may also describe various categories of people by the roles they play in the process. These include reporters, correspondents , citizen journalists , editors , editorial writers , columnists and photojournalists . A reporter
432-468: Is a type of journalist who researches , writes and reports on information in order to present using sources . This may entail conducting interviews , information-gathering and/or writing articles. Reporters may split their time between working in a newsroom , from home or outside to witness events or interview people. Reporters may be assigned a specific beat (area of coverage). Matthew C. Nisbet , who has written on science communication , has defined
480-537: Is argued to fall into the latter category which explains their popularity. Lifelike audiovisual media are argued to have particularly strong effects compared to reading. Women have on average stronger avoidance reactions to moderately negative stimuli. Men and women also differ on average in how they enjoy, evaluate, remember, comprehend, and identify with the people in news depending on if the news are negatively or positively framed. The stronger avoidance reaction to moderately negative stimuli has been explained as it being
528-604: Is called "discursive news values analysis" (DNVA). It focuses on the "distortion" step in Galtung and Ruge's chain of news communication, by analysing how events are discursively constructed as newsworthy. Initially labelled "news factors," news values are widely credited to Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge. In their seminal 1965 study, Galtung and Ruge put forward a system of twelve factors describing events that together are used as defining "newsworthiness." Focusing on newspapers and broadcast news , Galtung and Ruge devised
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#1732802001251576-488: Is largely because it would appear impossible to define a common factor, or factors, that generate interest in a mass audience . Basing his judgement on many years as a newspaper journalist Hetherington states that: "...anything which threatens people's peace, prosperity and well being is news and likely to make headlines." Whyte-Venables suggests audiences may interpret news as a risk signal. Psychologists and primatologists have shown that apes and humans constantly monitor
624-570: Is written, and fourth whether this story will end up being published as news and if so, where it is placed. Therefore, "there is no end to lists of news criteria." There are multiple competing lists of news values (including Galtung & Ruge's news factors, and others put forward by Schlesinger, Bell, Bednarek & Caple ), with considerable overlap but also disagreement as to what should be included. News values can relate to aspects of events and actors, or to aspects of news gathering and processing: Values in news actors and events: Values in
672-924: The Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom and advocate for journalistic freedom. As of November 2024, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 1625 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder (71%), crossfire or combat (17%), or on dangerous assignment (11%). The "ten deadliest countries" for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq (230 deaths), Philippines (109), Russia (77), Colombia (76), Mexico (69), Algeria (61), Pakistan (59), India (49), Somalia (45), Brazil (31) and Sri Lanka (30). The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of 1 December 2010, 145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. Current numbers are even higher. The ten countries with
720-507: The Congo and Cuban crisis of July 1960 and the Cyprus crisis of March–April 1964. Results were mainly consistent with their theory and hypotheses. Johan Galtung later said that the media have misconstrued his work and become far too negative, sensational, and adversarial. Methodologically and conceptually, news values can be approached from four different perspectives: material (focusing on
768-548: The Foreign Office exam, which he subsequently failed. With a career in the civil service now unlikely, Harrison's father used his connections to find his son a position with The Times . Harrison was sent to their Berlin bureau, but he soon ran afoul of their bureau chief and was dismissed. He later found positions with the Manchester Guardian and Reuters , where he enjoyed greater success. Chafing at
816-450: The Hamas attack , Russian invasion of Ukraine and the presidential election . American consumers turned away from journalists at legacy organizations as social media became a common news source. Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger, particularly when reporting in areas of armed conflict or in states that do not respect the freedom of the press . Organizations such as
864-610: The Medill School of Journalism, Media, Integrated Marketing Communications at Northwestern University . In January 2024, The Los Angeles Times , Time magazine and National Geographic all conducted layoffs, and Condé Nast journalists went on strike over proposed job cuts. The Los Angeles Times laid off more than 20% of the newsroom. CNN , Sports Illustrated and NBC News shed employees in early 2024. The New York Times reported that Americans were suffering from “news fatigue” due to coverage of major news stories like
912-519: The wire services , in radio , or for news magazines . Newsworthy News values are "criteria that influence the selection and presentation of events as published news." These values help explain what makes something "newsworthy." News values are not universal and can vary between different cultures . Among the many lists of news values that have been drawn up by scholars and journalists , some attempt to describe news practices across cultures, while others have become remarkably specific to
960-790: The battle of Battle of Festubert turned the Liberal editor into a passionate critic of the government during the subsequent munitions scandal . Harrison also supported a lenient peace with Germany; the harsh terms offered by Prime Minister David Lloyd George in 1918 drove Harrison to run against Lloyd George in the prime minister's own borough in the "coupon" election that December. Harrison helped to found International PEN in 1921. Two years later, he sold The English Review to focus on writing books, though he published occasional journalism as well. Harrison died in 1928 at his home in Sussex from bronchopneumonia . Journalist A journalist
1008-466: The brain differentiates between negative and positive stimuli and reacts quicker and more automatically to negative stimuli which are also better remembered. This likely has evolutionary explanations with it often being important to quickly focus attention on, evaluate, and quickly respond to threats. While the reaction to a strong negative stimulus is to avoid, a moderately negative stimulus instead causes curiosity and further examination. Negative media news
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#17328020012511056-403: The capacity, time and motivation to follow and analyze news of the many complex policy questions that troubled society. Nor did they often experience most social problems or directly access expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a news media that tended to oversimplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes , partisan viewpoints and prejudices . As a consequence, Lippmann believed that
1104-411: The chain from event to reader). Furthermore, three basic hypotheses are presented by Galtung and Ruge: the additivity hypothesis that the more factors an event satisfies, the higher the probability that it becomes news; the complementary hypothesis that the factors will tend to exclude each other; and the exclusion hypothesis that events that satisfy none or very few factors will not become news. In 2001,
1152-531: The country reportedly go unsolved. Bulgarian Victoria Marinova was beaten, raped and strangled. Saudi Arabian dissident Jamal Khashoggi was killed inside Saudi Arabia's consulate in Istanbul. From 2008 to 2019, Freedom Forum 's now-defunct Newseum in Washington, D.C. featured a Journalists Memorial which honored several thousand journalists around the world who had died or were killed while reporting
1200-496: The editorship of the newly acquired literary magazine The English Review . Recently started by the author Ford Madox Huffner (later Ford) , it had proved critically successful but a business failure. Though his practices irritated some, Harrison soon boosted circulation, which had been at only 1,000 when he assumed the editorship, to 18,000 by 1911. Such was his success that he bought out Mond in 1915, assuming ownership while continuing to serve as editor. During this time he broadened
1248-462: The environment for information that may signal the possibility of physical danger or threat to the individual's social position. This receptiveness to risk signals is a powerful and virtually universal survival mechanism. A "risk signal" is characterized by two factors, an element of change (or uncertainty) and the relevance of that change to the security of the individual. The same two conditions are observed to be characteristic of news. The news value of
1296-470: The event's location to the target audience). Conventional models concentrate on what the journalist perceives as news. But the news process is a two-way transaction, involving both news producer (the journalist) and the news receiver (the audience), although the boundary between the two is rapidly blurring with the growth of citizen journalism and interactive media. Little has been done to define equivalent factors that determine audience perception of news. This
1344-683: The following profile: In 2019 the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism Digital News Report described the future for journalists in South Africa as “grim” because of low online revenue and plummeting advertising. In 2020 Reporters Without Borders secretary general Christophe Deloire said journalists in developing countries were suffering political interference because the COVID-19 pandemic had given governments around
1392-579: The form of a targeted sexual violation, often in reprisal for their work. Mob-related sexual violence aimed against journalists covering public events; or the sexual abuse of journalists in detention or captivity. Many of these crimes are not reported as a result of powerful cultural and professional stigmas. Increasingly, journalists (particularly women) are abused and harassed online, via hate speech , cyber-bullying , cyber-stalking , doxing, trolling, public shaming , intimidation and threats. According to Reporters Without Borders ' 2018 annual report, it
1440-496: The fourth estate being driven by the fifth estate of public relations. Journalists can face violence and intimidation for exercising their fundamental right to freedom of expression . The range of threats they are confronted with include murder, kidnapping , hostage-taking, offline and online harassment, intimidation , enforced disappearances, arbitrary detention and torture. Women in journalism also face specific dangers and are especially vulnerable to sexual assault, whether in
1488-562: The growing threat posed by the German empire to British security. Yet the paper continued to lose money, prompting Northcliffe to replace Harrison with J. L. Garvin at the end of 1907. Despite his dismissal, Harrison remained with The Observer as literary editor, simultaneously working at the Northcliffe-owned Daily Mail as drama critic. At the end of 1908, Harrison accepted an offer from Alfred Mond to assume
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1536-544: The influential 1965 study was updated by Tony Harcup and Deirdre O'Neill, in a study of the British press . The findings of a content analysis of three major national newspapers in the UK were used to critically evaluate Galtung and Ruge's original criteria and to propose a contemporary set of news values. Forty years on, they found some notable differences, including the rise of celebrity news and that good news (as well as bad news)
1584-404: The largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey (95), China (34), Iran (34), Eritrea (17), Burma (13), Uzbekistan (6), Vietnam (5), Cuba (4), Ethiopia (4) and Sudan (3). Apart from physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their editorial offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with
1632-453: The material reality of events), cognitive (focusing on people's beliefs and value systems), social (focusing on journalistic practice), and discursive (focusing on the discourse). A discursive perspective tries to systematically examine how news values such as Negativity, Proximity, Eliteness, and others, are constructed through words and images in published news stories . This approach is influenced by linguistics and social semiotics , and
1680-604: The news process: One of the key differences in relation to these news values is whether they relate to events or stories. For example, composition and co-option both relate to the published news story. These are news values that concern how news stories fit with the other stories around them. The aim here is to ensure a balanced spread of stories with minimal duplication across a news program or edition. Such news values are qualitatively different from news values that relate to aspects of events, such as Eliteness (the elite status of news actors or sources) or Proximity (the closeness of
1728-918: The news. After the Newseum closed in December 2019, supporters of freedom of the press persuaded the United States Congress in December 2020 to authorize the construction of a memorial to fallen journalists on public land with private funds. By May 2023, the Fallen Journalists Memorial Foundation had begun the design of the memorial. In the US, nearly all journalists have attended university, but only about half majored in journalism. Journalists who work in television or for newspapers are more likely to have studied journalism in college than journalists working for
1776-478: The press of particular (often Western ) nations. In the Western tradition, decisions on the selection and prioritization of news are made by editors on the basis of their experience and intuition, although analysis by Galtung and Ruge showed that several factors are consistently applied across a range of news organizations . Their theory was tested on the news presented in four different Norwegian newspapers from
1824-538: The public needed journalists like himself who could serve as expert analysts, guiding "citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important". In 2018, the United States Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook reported that employment for the category "reporters, correspondents and broadcast news analysts" will decline 9 percent between 2016 and 2026. A worldwide sample of 27,500 journalists in 67 countries in 2012–2016 produced
1872-455: The range of contributors, publishing works by authors as diverse as Anton Chekhov , Hermann Hesse , Katherine Mansfield , Aleister Crowley , Edward Gordon Craig , George Bernard Shaw , and William Butler Yeats . Politics was also a topic addressed in the pages of The English Review , and Harrison continued to warn readers about the threat posed by Germany in the years leading up to The First World War . The death of one of his brothers at
1920-407: The rapid rise of digital technology in recent years, Harcup and O’Neill updated their 2001 study in 2016, while other scholars have analysed news values in viral news shared via social media. The growth of interactive media and citizen journalism is fast altering the traditional distinction between news producer and passive audience and may in future lead to a redefinition of what "news" means and
1968-423: The relevance of the story for the individual, his or her family, social group and societal group, in declining order. At some point there is a Boundary of Relevance, beyond which the change is no longer perceived to be relevant, or newsworthy. This boundary may be manipulated by journalists, power elites and communicators seeking to encourage audiences to exclude, or embrace, certain groups: for instance, to distance
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2016-606: The reporters they expose to danger. Hence, a systematic and sustainable way of psychological support for traumatized journalists is strongly needed. Few and fragmented support programs exist so far. On 8 August 2023, Iran's Journalists' Day, Tehran Journalists' Association head Akbar Montajabi noted over 100 journalists arrested amid protests, while HamMihan newspaper exposed repression against 76 media workers since September 2022 following Mahsa Amini's death-triggered mass protests, leading to legal consequences for journalists including Niloufar Hamedi and Elaheh. The relationship between
2064-546: The restrictions imposed by the German foreign ministry , Harrison resigned from Reuters in 1904 and expressed his concerns about the Kaiser in his first book, The Pan-Germanic Doctrine . Returning to London, he worked briefly as a freelance journalist until he was offered the editorship of The Observer by Lord Northcliffe , the weekly newspaper's new owner. Harrison proved an able editor, using his position to warn his readers of
2112-401: The role of the news industry. A variety of external and internal pressures influence journalistic decisions during the news -making process, which can sometimes lead to bias or unethical reporting. Many different factors have the potential to influence whether an event is first noticed by a news organisation , second whether a story will be written about that event, third, how that story
2160-513: The source often leads, but journalists commonly object to this notion for two reasons: The dance metaphor goes on to state: A relationship with sources that is too cozy is potentially compromising of journalists' integrity and risks becoming collusive. Journalists have typically favored a more robust, conflict model, based on a crucial assumption that if the media are to function as watchdogs of powerful economic and political interests, journalists must establish their independence of sources or risk
2208-497: The world the chance “to take advantage of the fact that politics are on hold, the public is stunned and protests are out of the question, in order to impose measures that would be impossible in normal times”. In 2023 the closure of local newspapers in the US accelerated to an average of 2.5 per week, leaving more than 200 US counties as “news deserts” and meaning that more than half of all U.S. counties had limited access to reliable local news and information, according to researchers at
2256-491: Was a significant news value, as well as the newspaper's own agenda. They examined three tabloid newspapers . In a rapidly evolving market, achieving relevance , giving audiences the news they want and find interesting, is an increasingly important goal for media outlets seeking to maintain market share. This has made news organizations more open to audience input and feedback, and forced them to adopt and apply news values that attract and keep audiences. Given these changes and
2304-495: Was the worst year on record for deadly violence and abuse toward journalists; there was a 15 percent increase in such killings since 2017, with 80 killed, 348 imprisoned and 60 held hostage. Yaser Murtaja was shot by an Israeli army sniper. Rubén Pat was gunned down outside a beach bar in Mexico. Mexico was described by Reporters Without Borders as "one of world's deadliest countries for the media"; 90% of attacks on journalists in
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