The Austin Roberts (Memorial) Bird Sanctuary is a 11.76 ha (29.1 acres) nature reserve located in the Walkerspruit Open Space System, in the Nieuw Muckleneuk suburb of Pretoria , South Africa . It became the first bird refuge in Pretoria when it was opened by the then mayor of Pretoria, Mr. W. J. Seymore, on 27 October 1956. It was officially proclaimed as a nature reserve on 26 February 1958, and it was fenced in June 1970.
151-595: The sanctuary is named after South Africa's well-known ornithologist and mammalogist , J. Austin Roberts . He was born in Pretoria in 1883, but grew up in Potchefstroom as a minister's son, where the local amateur ornithologist, Thomas Ayres , was his mentor. Free access is limited to the bird hide, which is reached from the northern perimeter, where a small exhibition facility is located. It has been declared
302-630: A binomial name , categorising them into different genera. However, ornithology did not emerge as a specialised science until the Victorian era—with the popularization of natural history, and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins. This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1858. In 1859, the members founded its journal The Ibis . The sudden spurt in ornithology
453-635: A menagerie and sponsored translations of Arabic texts, among which the popular Arabic work known as the Liber Moaminus by an unknown author which was translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch from Syria in 1240-1241 as the De Scientia Venandi per Aves , and also Michael Scotus (who had removed to Palermo) translated Ibn Sīnā 's Kitāb al-Ḥayawān of 1027 for the Emperor, a commentary and scientific update of Aristotle's work which
604-399: A provincial heritage site due to its recreational and educational value. A former clay quarry at the confluence of Walker and Argo Spruit was allowed to fill with water, and some exotic trees were planted along its verges. In addition nine small perennial dams or wetland basins have been created, some with artificial islands, to accommodate aquatic birds and animals. The natural veld type of
755-619: A Latin translation of Aristotle's work on animals from Arabic here around 1215, which was disseminated widely and was the first time in a millennium that this foundational text on zoology became available to Europeans. Falconry was popular in the Norman court in Sicily, and a number of works on the subject were written in Palermo . Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1194–1250) learned about an falconry during his youth in Sicily and later built up
906-697: A classification of birds, De Differentiis Avium (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits. Konrad Gesner wrote the Vogelbuch and Icones avium omnium around 1557. Like Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi , an encyclopedic naturalist, began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII , which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals, and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants, and animals, published in 363 volumes. His Ornithology alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as
1057-511: A combination of biogeography with the biogeochemical cycle concept pioneered by chemists; field biologists developed quantitative methods such as the quadrat and adapted laboratory instruments and cameras for the field to further set their work apart from traditional natural history. Zoologists and botanists did what they could to mitigate the unpredictability of the living world, performing laboratory experiments and studying semi-controlled natural environments such as gardens; new institutions like
1208-471: A designed hierarchy, the other great naturalist of the 18th century, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon , treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of common descent . Though he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought ; his work would influence the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin . The discovery and description of new species and
1359-443: A dominant metaphor in biological (and social) thinking. Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell . In 1838 and 1839, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life , though they opposed
1510-402: A large contribution made by amateurs in terms of time, resources, and financial support. Studies on birds have helped develop key concepts in biology including evolution, behaviour and ecology such as the definition of species , the process of speciation , instinct , learning , ecological niches , guilds , island biogeography , phylogeography , and conservation . While early ornithology
1661-599: A lasting research focus. Ecology expanded rapidly with the rise of the environmental movement; the International Biological Program attempted to apply the methods of big science (which had been so successful in the physical sciences) to ecosystem ecology and pressing environmental issues, while smaller-scale independent efforts such as island biogeography and the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest helped redefine
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#17327722538061812-448: A model for many studies in non-mammalian immunology. Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds in captivity. Studies on bird intelligence and song learning have been largely laboratory-based. Field researchers may make use of a wide range of techniques such as the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, and dummy males or the use of call playback to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish
1963-650: A more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection ; similar evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions. The 1859 publication of Darwin's theory in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life is often considered the central event in the history of modern biology. Darwin's established credibility as
2114-431: A naturalist, the sober tone of the work, and most of all the sheer strength and volume of evidence presented, allowed Origin to succeed where previous evolutionary works such as the anonymous Vestiges of Creation had failed. Most scientists were convinced of evolution and common descent by the end of the 19th century. However, natural selection would not be accepted as the primary mechanism of evolution until well into
2265-404: A new interest in entomology and built the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining . As the microscopic world was expanding, the macroscopic world was shrinking. Botanists such as John Ray worked to incorporate the flood of newly discovered organisms shipped from across the globe into a coherent taxonomy, and a coherent theology ( natural theology ). Debate over another flood,
2416-540: A period that profoundly influenced the development of what came to be known as biology. Over a dozen medical papyri have been preserved, most notably the Edwin Smith Papyrus (the oldest extant surgical handbook) and the Ebers Papyrus (a handbook of preparing and using materia medica for various diseases), both from around 1600 BCE. Ancient Egypt is also known for developing embalming , which
2567-593: A policy of the British Ornithologists' Union to keep out women. Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the British Trust for Ornithology was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological research. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain. In Canada, citizen scientist Elsie Cassels studied migratory birds and
2718-586: A resource for taxonomic studies. The use of bird skins to document species has been a standard part of systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, legs, and skull along with the skin and feathers. In the past, they were treated with arsenic to prevent fungal and insect (mostly dermestid ) attack. Arsenic, being toxic, was replaced by less-toxic borax . Amateur and professional collectors became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from distant locations. This led to
2869-423: A series of anatomists who gradually replaced scholasticism with empiricism in physiology and medicine, relying on first-hand experience rather than authority and abstract reasoning. Via herbalism , medicine was also indirectly the source of renewed empiricism in the study of plants. Otto Brunfels , Hieronymus Bock and Leonhart Fuchs wrote extensively on wild plants, the beginning of a nature-based approach to
3020-403: A spurt of bird studies in this area. The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by Konrad Lorenz and the studies of instinct in herring gulls by Nicolaas Tinbergen led to the establishment of the field of ethology . The study of learning became an area of interest and the study of bird songs has been a model for studies in neuroethology. The study of hormones and physiology in
3171-943: A tract on falconry, and introduced the words "incubation" and "oviparous" into the English language. Towards the late 18th century, Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723–1806) and Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) began new works on birds. Brisson produced a six-volume work Ornithologie in 1760 and Buffon's included nine volumes (volumes 16–24) on birds Histoire naturelle des oiseaux (1770–1785) in his work on science Histoire naturelle générale et particulière (1749–1804). Jacob Temminck sponsored François Le Vaillant [1753–1824] to collect bird specimens in Southern Africa and Le Vaillant's six-volume Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique (1796–1808) included many non-African birds. His other bird books produced in collaboration with
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#17327722538063322-462: A transparent top and visible cues such as the direction of sunlight may be controlled using mirrors or the positions of the stars simulated in a planetarium . The entire genome of the domestic fowl ( Gallus gallus ) was sequenced in 2004, and was followed in 2008 by the genome of the zebra finch ( Taeniopygia guttata ). Such whole-genome sequencing projects allow for studies on evolutionary processes involved in speciation . Associations between
3473-462: A two-part article in The Auk , noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals, and suggested the possibility that the "vast army of bird lovers and bird watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology." The amateur ornithologist Harold F. Mayfield noted that the field was also funded by non-professionals. He noted that in 1975, 12% of
3624-467: Is another technique that has the advantage of preserving stomach contents and anatomy, although it tends to shrink, making it less reliable for morphometrics. The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by improvements in optics. Photography made it possible to document birds in the field with great accuracy. High-power spotting scopes today allow observers to detect minute morphological differences that were earlier possible only by examination of
3775-447: Is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles. David Lack's studies on population ecology sought to find the processes involved in the regulation of population based on the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by density-dependent controls , and also suggested that natural selection produces life-history traits that maximize
3926-620: Is extinct and all extant ostrich races are today restricted to Africa . Other old writings such as the Vedas (1500–800 BC) demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and include the earliest reference to the habit of brood parasitism by the Asian koel ( Eudynamys scolopaceus ). Like writing, the early art of China, Japan, Persia, and India also demonstrate knowledge, with examples of scientifically accurate bird illustrations. Aristotle in 350 BC in his History of animals noted
4077-554: Is often regarded as the greatest ornithological work in history. The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline began in the 18th century, when Mark Catesby published his two-volume Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands , a landmark work which included 220 hand-painted engravings and was the basis for many of the species Carl Linnaeus described in the 1758 Systema Naturae . Linnaeus' work revolutionised bird taxonomy by assigning every species
4228-584: Is the first such record of North American birds, significantly antedating Audubon. In the early 19th century, Lewis and Clark studied and identified many birds in the western United States. John James Audubon , born in 1785, observed and painted birds in France and later in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. From 1827 to 1838, Audubon published The Birds of America , which was engraved by Robert Havell Sr. and his son Robert Havell Jr. Containing 435 engravings, it
4379-573: The Bulo Burti boubou ( Laniarius liberatus , no longer a valid species) and the Bugun liocichla ( Liocichla bugunorum ), using blood, DNA and feather samples as the holotype material, has now become possible. Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies. Freeze drying of specimens
4530-575: The Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution and the Marine Biological Laboratory provided more controlled environments for studying organisms through their entire life cycles. The ecological succession concept, pioneered in the 1900s and 1910s by Henry Chandler Cowles and Frederic Clements , was important in early plant ecology. Alfred Lotka 's predator-prey equations , G. Evelyn Hutchinson 's studies of
4681-527: The Hellenistic period under the Ptolemies —particularly Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios —amended Aristotle's physiological work, even performing dissections and vivisections. Claudius Galen became the most important authority on medicine and anatomy. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological Aristotelian viewpoint that all aspects of life are
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4832-651: The Lyceum , Theophrastus , wrote a series of books on botany, the History of Plants , which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages . Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as karpós for fruit, and perikárpion for seed vessel. Dioscorides wrote a pioneering and encyclopedic pharmacopoeia , De materia medica , incorporating descriptions of some 600 plants and their uses in medicine . Pliny
4983-620: The Malay Archipelago . While in the archipelago he identified the Wallace line , which runs through the Spice Islands dividing the fauna of the archipelago between an Asian zone and a New Guinea /Australian zone. His key question, as to why the fauna of islands with such similar climates should be so different, could only be answered by considering their origin. In 1876 he wrote The Geographical Distribution of Animals , which
5134-583: The Middle Ages by Muslim physicians and scholars such as Avicenna . During the European Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were Vesalius and Harvey , who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology , and naturalists such as Linnaeus and Buffon who began to classify
5285-460: The Noachian , catalyzed the development of paleontology ; in 1669 Nicholas Steno published an essay on how the remains of living organisms could be trapped in layers of sediment and mineralized to produce fossils . Although Steno's ideas about fossilization were well known and much debated among natural philosophers, an organic origin for all fossils would not be accepted by all naturalists until
5436-765: The Roman Empire led to the disappearance or destruction of much knowledge, though physicians still incorporated many aspects of the Greek tradition into training and practice. In Byzantium and the Islamic world, many of the Greek works were translated into Arabic and many of the works of Aristotle were preserved. During the High Middle Ages , a few European scholars such as Hildegard of Bingen , Albertus Magnus and Frederick II wrote on natural history. The rise of European universities , though important for
5587-626: The Third Dynasty of Ur ( c. 2112 – c. 2004 BCE ). The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū , or chief scholar, Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa , during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069 – 1046 BCE). In East Semitic cultures, the main medicinal authority was an exorcist-healer known as an āšipu . The profession
5738-425: The argument from design ). Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as botany and zoology became increasingly professional scientific disciplines . Lavoisier and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as Alexander von Humboldt investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and
5889-467: The chicken and poultry techniques. He used a number of traits including behaviour, particularly bathing and dusting, to classify bird groups. William Turner 's Historia Avium ( History of Birds ), published at Cologne in 1544, was an early ornithological work from England. He noted the commonness of kites in English cities where they snatched food out of the hands of children. He included folk beliefs such as those of anglers. Anglers believed that
6040-442: The collection of specimens became a passion of scientific gentlemen and a lucrative enterprise for entrepreneurs; many naturalists traveled the globe in search of scientific knowledge and adventure. Extending the work of Vesalius into experiments on still living bodies (of both humans and animals), William Harvey and other natural philosophers investigated the roles of blood, veins and arteries. Harvey's De motu cordis in 1628
6191-421: The living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to Ayurveda , ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle , Theophrastus and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world . This ancient work was further developed in
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6342-421: The osprey emptied their fishponds and would kill them, mixing the flesh of the osprey into their fish bait. Turner's work reflected the violent times in which he lived, and stands in contrast to later works such as Gilbert White 's 1789 The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne that were written in a tranquil era. In the 17th century, Francis Willughby (1635–1672) and John Ray (1627–1705) created
6493-415: The " Drosophilists " in his fly lab applied this to a new model organism. They hypothesized crossing over to explain linkage and constructed genetic maps of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , which became a widely used model organism . Hugo de Vries tried to link the new genetics with evolution; building on his work with heredity and hybridization , he proposed a theory of mutationism , which
6644-481: The " neo-Darwinian synthesis ". New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after Watson and Crick proposed the structure of DNA . Following the establishment of the Central Dogma and the cracking of the genetic code , biology was largely split between organismal biology —the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms—and the fields related to cellular and molecular biology . By
6795-490: The 17th century, as the traditional metaphor of nature as organism was replaced by the nature as machine metaphor. Systematizing , naming and classifying dominated natural history throughout much of the 17th and 18th centuries. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species. While Linnaeus conceived of species as unchanging parts of
6946-506: The 1820s and 1830s, with pioneers such as J. Dovaston (who also pioneered in the use of bird feeders), but instruction manuals did not begin to insist on the use of optical aids such as "a first-class telescope" or "field glass" until the 1880s. The rise of field guides for the identification of birds was another major innovation. The early guides such as Thomas Bewick's two-volume guide and William Yarrell's three-volume guide were cumbersome, and mainly focused on identifying specimens in
7097-414: The 1900s and 1910s demonstrated the power of experimentation in biology. In the following decades, experimental work replaced natural history as the dominant mode of research. In the early 20th century, naturalists were faced with increasing pressure to add rigor and preferably experimentation to their methods, as the newly prominent laboratory-based biological disciplines had done. Ecology had emerged as
7248-444: The 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation and the rise of the germ theory of disease , though the mechanism of inheritance remained a mystery. In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work in botany by Carl Correns led to the rapid development of genetics applied to fruit flies by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of population genetics and natural selection in
7399-454: The 19th century. In 1901, Robert Ridgway wrote in the introduction to The Birds of North and Middle America that: There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and popular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies, and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life histories. This early idea that
7550-510: The 20th century, as most contemporary theories of heredity seemed incompatible with the inheritance of random variation. Wallace, following on earlier work by de Candolle , Humboldt and Darwin, made major contributions to zoogeography . Because of his interest in the transmutation hypothesis, he paid particular attention to the geographical distribution of closely allied species during his field work first in South America and then in
7701-537: The Birds by Roger Tory Peterson in 1934, to Birds of the West Indies published in 1936 by Dr. James Bond - the same who inspired the amateur ornithologist Ian Fleming in naming his famous literary spy . The interest in birdwatching grew in popularity in many parts of the world, and the possibility for amateurs to contribute to biological studies was soon realized. As early as 1916, Julian Huxley wrote
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#17327722538067852-609: The Elder described birds, among other creatures, in his Historia Naturalis . The earliest record of falconry comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC) in Assyria . Falconry is thought to have made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the east after invasions by the Huns and Alans . Starting from the eighth century, numerous Arabic works on the subject and general ornithology were written, as well as translations of
8003-403: The Elder , in his Natural History , assembled a similarly encyclopaedic account of things in nature, including accounts of many plants and animals. Aristotle, and nearly all Western scholars after him until the 18th century, believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to humans: the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being . A few scholars in
8154-544: The Mediterranean, and Pierre Belon , who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some 200 species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in comparative anatomy . Volcher Coiter (1534–1576), a Dutch anatomist, made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced
8305-486: The Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting local specialization and variation in widespread species. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical regions caused
8456-497: The artist Barraband are considered among the most valuable illustrated guides ever produced. Louis Pierre Vieillot (1748–1831) spent 10 years studying North American birds and wrote the Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale (1807–1808?). Vieillot pioneered in the use of life histories and habits in classification. Alexander Wilson composed a nine-volume work, American Ornithology , published 1808-1814, which
8607-511: The attempts of the atomists to explain life in purely physical terms would recur periodically through the history of biology. However, the medical theories of Hippocrates and his followers, especially humorism , had a lasting impact. The philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world from classical antiquity . Though his early work in natural philosophy was speculative, Aristotle's later biological writings were more empirical, focusing on biological causation and
8758-519: The beginning of the 20th century, biological research was largely a professional endeavour. Most work was still done in the natural history mode, which emphasized morphological and phylogenetic analysis over experiment-based causal explanations. However, anti- vitalist experimental physiologists and embryologists, especially in Europe, were increasingly influential. The tremendous success of experimental approaches to development, heredity, and metabolism in
8909-440: The behaviour, with many names being onomatopoeic , and still in use. Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine and knowledge of these practices are passed on through oral traditions (see ethno-ornithology ). Hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. Poultry farming and falconry were practised from early times in many parts of
9060-490: The biogeography and biogeochemical structure of lakes and rivers ( limnology ) and Charles Elton's studies of animal food chains were pioneers among the succession of quantitative methods that colonized the developing ecological specialties. Ecology became an independent discipline in the 1940s and 1950s after Eugene P. Odum synthesized many of the concepts of ecosystem ecology , placing relationships between groups of organisms (especially material and energy relationships) at
9211-415: The body being composed of five elements and seven basic tissues . Ayurvedic writers also classified living things into four categories based on the method of birth (from the womb, eggs, heat & moisture, and seeds) and explained the conception of a fetus in detail. They also made considerable advances in the field of surgery , often without the use of human dissection or animal vivisection . One of
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#17327722538069362-431: The boundaries of bird territories. Studies of bird migration including aspects of navigation, orientation, and physiology are often studied using captive birds in special cages that record their activities. The Emlen funnel , for instance, makes use of a cage with an inkpad at the centre and a conical floor where the ink marks can be counted to identify the direction in which the bird attempts to fly. The funnel can have
9513-427: The categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, but the classification is rough and many analysis techniques are usable both in the laboratory and field or may require a combination of field and laboratory techniques. The earliest approaches to modern bird study involved the collection of eggs, a practice known as oology . While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs,
9664-530: The cell divided and a daughter cell was produced. Much of the research on cell reproduction came together in August Weismann 's theory of heredity: he identified the nucleus (in particular chromosomes) as the hereditary material, proposed the distinction between somatic cells and germ cells (arguing that chromosome number must be halved for germ cells, a precursor to the concept of meiosis ), and adopted Hugo de Vries 's theory of pangenes . Weismannism
9815-413: The center of the field. In the 1960s, as evolutionary theorists explored the possibility of multiple units of selection , ecologists turned to evolutionary approaches. In population ecology , debate over group selection was brief but vigorous; by 1970, most biologists agreed that natural selection was rarely effective above the level of individual organisms. The evolution of ecosystems, however, became
9966-528: The control of behaviour has also been aided by bird models. These have helped in finding the proximate causes of circadian and seasonal cycles. Studies on migration have attempted to answer questions on the evolution of migration, orientation, and navigation. The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology led to the application of the gene-centered view of evolution to explain avian phenomena. Studies on kinship and altruism, such as helpers , became of particular interest. The idea of inclusive fitness
10117-408: The cooperation of people and organizations in different countries. Wild birds impact many human activities, while domesticated birds are important sources of eggs, meat, feathers, and other products. Applied and economic ornithology aim to reduce the ill effects of problem birds and enhance gains from beneficial species. History of biology The history of biology traces the study of
10268-412: The descriptions of bird species. These skin collections have been used in more recent times for studies on molecular phylogenetics by the extraction of ancient DNA . The importance of type specimens in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. However, with the rise of molecular techniques, establishing the taxonomic status of new discoveries, such as
10419-544: The descriptive aspects of biology, though it also included mineralogy and other non-biological fields; from the Middle Ages through the Renaissance, the unifying framework of natural history was the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being . Natural philosophy and natural theology encompassed the conceptual and metaphysical basis of plant and animal life, dealing with problems of why organisms exist and behave
10570-410: The development of physics and philosophy, had little impact on biological scholarship. The European Renaissance brought expanded interest in both empirical natural history and physiology. In 1543, Andreas Vesalius inaugurated the modern era of Western medicine with his seminal human anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica , which was based on dissection of corpses. Vesalius was the first in
10721-478: The development of the discipline of landscape ecology . John Hurrell Crook studied the behaviour of weaverbirds and demonstrated the links between ecological conditions, behaviour, and social systems. Principles from economics were introduced to the study of biology by Jerram L. Brown in his work on explaining territorial behaviour. This led to more studies of behaviour that made use of cost-benefit analyses . The rising interest in sociobiology also led to
10872-424: The discovery of the first hormone , secretin , in 1902), biomechanics , and the study of nutrition and digestion . The importance and diversity of experimental physiology methods, within both medicine and biology, grew dramatically over the second half of the 19th century. The control and manipulation of life processes became a central concern, and experiment was placed at the center of biological education. At
11023-559: The distribution patterns of birds. For Darwin, the problem was how species arose from a common ancestor, but he did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The species problem was tackled by the ornithologist Ernst Mayr , who was able to demonstrate that geographical isolation and the accumulation of genetic differences led to the splitting of species . Early ornithologists were preoccupied with matters of species identification. Only systematics counted as true science and field studies were considered inferior through much of
11174-419: The diversity of life and the fossil record , as well as the development and behavior of organisms. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek revealed by means of microscopy the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory . The growing importance of natural theology , partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy , encouraged the growth of natural history (although it entrenched
11325-404: The diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, which he devoted considerable attention to categorizing . In all, Aristotle classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. He believed that intellectual purposes, formal causes , guided all natural processes. Aristotle's successor at
11476-480: The earliest Ayurvedic treatises was the Sushruta Samhita , attributed to Sushruta in the 6th century BCE. It was also an early materia medica , describing 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources, and 57 preparations based on animal sources. The pre-Socratic philosophers asked many questions about life but produced little systematic knowledge of specifically biological interest—though
11627-420: The early-to-mid-19th century resulted in a wealth of new information about the diversity and distribution of living organisms. Of particular importance was the work of Alexander von Humboldt , which analyzed the relationship between organisms and their environment (i.e., the domain of natural history ) using the quantitative approaches of natural philosophy (i.e., physics and chemistry ). Humboldt's work laid
11778-499: The editorial policy of the journal, leading both to a unification of field and laboratory studies and a shift of research from museums to universities. Ornithology in the United States continued to be dominated by museum studies of morphological variations, species identities, and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student Ernst Mayr . In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used
11929-1019: The end of the 18th century due to philosophical and theological debate about issues such as the age of the earth and extinction . Up through the 19th century, the scope of biology was largely divided between medicine, which investigated questions of form and function (i.e., physiology), and natural history, which was concerned with the diversity of life and interactions among different forms of life and between life and non-life. By 1900, much of these domains overlapped, while natural history (and its counterpart natural philosophy ) had largely given way to more specialized scientific disciplines— cytology , bacteriology , morphology , embryology , geography , and geology . The term biology in its modern sense appears to have been introduced independently by Thomas Beddoes (in 1799), Karl Friedrich Burdach (in 1800), Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus ( Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur , 1802) and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ( Hydrogéologie , 1802). The word itself appears in
12080-453: The end of the 19th century the concept of enzymes was well established, though equations of chemical kinetics would not be applied to enzymatic reactions until the early 20th century. Physiologists such as Claude Bernard explored (through vivisection and other experimental methods) the chemical and physical functions of living bodies to an unprecedented degree, laying the groundwork for endocrinology (a field that developed quickly after
12231-492: The environment. Camera traps have been found to be a useful tool for the detection and documentation of elusive species, nest predators and in the quantitative analysis of frugivory, seed dispersal and behaviour. Many aspects of bird biology are difficult to study in the field. These include the study of behavioural and physiological changes that require a long duration of access to the bird. Nondestructive samples of blood or feathers taken during field studies may be studied in
12382-511: The expression of Bmp4 have been shown to be associated with changes in the growth and shape of the beak. The chicken has long been a model organism for studying vertebrate developmental biology . As the embryo is readily accessible, its development can be easily followed (unlike mice ). This also allows the use of electroporation for studying the effect of adding or silencing a gene. Other tools for perturbing their genetic makeup are chicken embryonic stem cells and viral vectors . With
12533-512: The expression of genes and behaviour may be studied using candidate genes. Variations in the exploratory behaviour of great tits ( Parus major ) have been found to be linked with a gene orthologous to the human gene DRD4 (Dopamine receptor D4) which is known to be associated with novelty-seeking behaviour. The role of gene expression in developmental differences and morphological variations have been studied in Darwin's finches . The difference in
12684-457: The first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behaviour. Willughby's Ornithologiae libri tres (1676) completed by John Ray is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on Ornithologia , which was published posthumously in 1713 as Synopsis methodica avium et piscium . The earliest list of British birds, Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum ,
12835-608: The first major turning point in biological knowledge came with the Neolithic Revolution about 10,000 years ago. Humans first domesticated plants for farming, then livestock animals to accompany the resulting sedentary societies . Between around 3000 and 1200 BCE , the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians made contributions to astronomy , mathematics , and medicine , which later entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity ,
12986-439: The fitness of individuals. Others, such as Wynne-Edwards , interpreted population regulation as a mechanism that aided the "species" rather than individuals . This led to widespread and sometimes bitter debate on what constituted the "unit of selection". Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for ornithological research, including the idea of using radar to study bird migration. Birds were also widely used in studies of
13137-438: The formation of huge collections of bird skins in museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also formed. These became references for comparison of species, and the ornithologists at these museums were able to compare species from different locations, often places that they themselves never visited. Morphometrics of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail, and wing became important in
13288-449: The foundations of biogeography and inspired several generations of scientists. The emerging discipline of geology also brought natural history and natural philosophy closer together; the establishment of the stratigraphic column linked the spatial distribution of organisms to their temporal distribution, a key precursor to concepts of evolution. Georges Cuvier and others made great strides in comparative anatomy and paleontology in
13439-478: The full range of plant life. Bestiaries —a genre that combines both the natural and figurative knowledge of animals—also became more sophisticated, especially with the work of William Turner , Pierre Belon , Guillaume Rondelet , Conrad Gessner , and Ulisse Aldrovandi . Artists such as Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci , often working with naturalists, were also interested in the bodies of animals and humans, studying physiology in detail and contributing to
13590-418: The genetics of behavior, sociobiology , and, especially in humans, evolutionary psychology . In the 1960s W.D. Hamilton and others developed game theory approaches to explain altruism from an evolutionary perspective through kin selection . The possible origin of higher organisms through endosymbiosis , and contrasting approaches to molecular evolution in the gene-centered view (which held selection as
13741-423: The growth of anatomical knowledge. The traditions of alchemy and natural magic , especially in the work of Paracelsus , also laid claim to knowledge of the living world. Alchemists subjected organic matter to chemical analysis and experimented liberally with both biological and mineral pharmacology . This was part of a larger transition in world views (the rise of the mechanical philosophy ) that continued into
13892-580: The habit of bird migration , moulting, egg laying, and lifespans, as well as compiling a list of 170 different bird species. However, he also introduced and propagated several myths, such as the idea that swallows hibernated in winter, although he noted that cranes migrated from the steppes of Scythia to the marshes at the headwaters of the Nile . The idea of swallow hibernation became so well established that even as late as in 1878, Elliott Coues could list as many as 182 contemporary publications dealing with
14043-476: The hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by Florence Merriam , sister of Clinton Hart Merriam , the mammalogist. This was published in 1887 in a series Hints to Audubon Workers: Fifty Birds and How to Know Them in Grinnell's Audubon Magazine . These were followed by new field guides, from the pioneering illustrated handbooks of Frank Chapman to the classic Field Guide to
14194-513: The hibernation of swallows and little published evidence to contradict the theory. Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of barnacle geese . Their nests had not been seen, and they were believed to grow by transformations of goose barnacles , an idea that became prevalent from around the 11th century and noted by Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis ( Gerald of Wales ) in Topographia Hiberniae (1187). Around 77 AD, Pliny
14345-554: The homogeneous fluid-filled chambers described by earlier microscopists. Robert Brown had described the nucleus in 1831, and by the end of the 19th century cytologists identified many of the key cell components: chromosomes , centrosomes mitochondria , chloroplasts , and other structures made visible through staining. Between 1874 and 1884 Walther Flemming described the discrete stages of mitosis, showing that they were not artifacts of staining but occurred in living cells, and moreover, that chromosomes doubled in number just before
14496-529: The idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow , however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory . Cell theory led biologists to re-envision individual organisms as interdependent assemblages of individual cells. Scientists in the rising field of cytology , armed with increasingly powerful microscopes and new staining methods, soon found that even single cells were far more complex than
14647-439: The introduction of trinomial names. The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854), his student Johann Baptist von Spix (1781–1826), and several others believed that a hidden and innate mathematical order existed in the forms of birds. They believed that a "natural" classification was available and superior to "artificial" ones. A particularly popular idea
14798-476: The labels associated with these early egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. To preserve eggs, a tiny hole was made and the contents extracted. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830. Egg collection is no longer popular; however, historic museum collections have been of value in determining the effects of pesticides such as DDT on physiology. Museum bird collections continue to act as
14949-534: The laboratory and out in the field, and innovations are constantly made. Most biologists who recognise themselves as "ornithologists" study specific biology research areas, such as anatomy , physiology , taxonomy , ecology , or behaviour . The word "ornithology" comes from the late 16th-century Latin ornithologia meaning "bird science" from the Greek ὄρνις ornis ("bird") and λόγος logos ("theory, science, thought"). The history of ornithology largely reflects
15100-510: The laboratory. For instance, the variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes establishing the origins of migrant birds possible using mass spectrometric analysis of feather samples. These techniques can be used in combination with other techniques such as ringing. The first attenuated vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur , for fowl cholera, was tested on poultry in 1878. Anti-malarials were tested on birds which harbour avian-malarias. Poultry continues to be used as
15251-549: The late 1790s and early 19th century. In a series of lectures and papers that made detailed comparisons between living mammals and fossil remains Cuvier was able to establish that the fossils were remains of species that had become extinct —rather than being remains of species still alive elsewhere in the world, as had been widely believed. Fossils discovered and described by Gideon Mantell , William Buckland , Mary Anning , and Richard Owen among others helped establish that there had been an 'age of reptiles' that had preceded even
15402-567: The late 20th century, new fields like genomics and proteomics were reversing this trend, with organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment, as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms. The earliest humans must have had and passed on knowledge about plants and animals to increase their chances of survival. This may have included knowledge of human and animal anatomy and aspects of animal behavior (such as migration patterns). However,
15553-454: The niche hypothesis and Georgii Gause 's competitive exclusion principle. Work on resource partitioning and the structuring of bird communities through competition were made by Robert MacArthur . Patterns of biodiversity also became a topic of interest. Work on the relationship of the number of species to area and its application in the study of island biogeography was pioneered by E. O. Wilson and Robert MacArthur . These studies led to
15704-463: The oldest indications of an interest in birds. Birds were perhaps important as food sources, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early Stone Age settlements. Waterbird and seabird remains have also been found in shell mounds on the island of Oronsay off the coast of Scotland . Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds. Traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of
15855-513: The oldest organised systems of medicine is known from ancient India in the form of Ayurveda , which originated around 1500 BCE from Atharvaveda (one of the four most ancient books of Indian knowledge, wisdom and culture). The ancient Indian Ayurveda tradition independently developed the concept of three humours, resembling that of the four humours of ancient Greek medicine , though the Ayurvedic system included further complications, such as
16006-504: The order within the crow family. Where he failed to find five genera, he left a blank insisting that a new genus would be found to fill these gaps. These ideas were replaced by more complex "maps" of affinities in works by Hugh Edwin Strickland and Alfred Russel Wallace . A major advance was made by Max Fürbringer in 1888, who established a comprehensive phylogeny of birds based on anatomy, morphology, distribution, and biology. This
16157-689: The papers in American ornithology journals were written by persons who were not employed in biology related work. Organizations were started in many countries, and these grew rapidly in membership, most notable among them being the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in Britain and the Audubon Society in the US, which started in 1885. Both these organizations were started with
16308-534: The predominant cause of evolution) and the neutral theory (which made genetic drift a key factor) spawned perennial debates over the proper balance of adaptationism and contingency in evolutionary theory. In the 1970s Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium which holds that stasis is the most prominent feature of the fossil record, and that most evolutionary changes occur rapidly over relatively short periods of time. In 1980 Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez proposed
16459-421: The prehistoric mammals. These discoveries captured the public imagination and focused attention on the history of life on earth. Most of these geologists held to catastrophism , but Charles Lyell 's influential Principles of Geology (1830) popularised Hutton's uniformitarianism , a theory that explained the geological past and present on equal terms. The most significant evolutionary theory before Darwin's
16610-468: The primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small Croydon -based group of women, including Eliza Phillips , Etta Lemon , Catherine Hall and Hannah Poland . Calling themselves the "Fur, Fin, and Feather Folk", the group met regularly and took a pledge "to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the ostrich only exempted." The organization did not allow men as members initially, avenging
16761-505: The relative lengths of wing feathers in warblers) are vital in establishing identity. Captured birds are often marked for future recognition. Rings or bands provide long-lasting identification, but require capture for the information on them to be read. Field-identifiable marks such as coloured bands, wing tags, or dyes enable short-term studies where individual identification is required. Mark and recapture techniques make demographic studies possible. Ringing has traditionally been used in
16912-411: The reserve, and some exotic duck species are present. [REDACTED] Media related to Austin Roberts bird sanctuary at Wikimedia Commons Ornithologist Ornithology is a branch of zoology that concerns the study of birds . Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. It has also been an area with
17063-485: The result of design or purpose, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity , natural theology ) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst W. Mayr argued that "Nothing of any real consequence happened in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." The ideas of the Greek traditions of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly in medieval Europe . The decline of
17214-449: The rising field of organic chemistry —building on the work of Lavoisier—showed that the organic world could often be analyzed by physical and chemical methods. In 1828 Wöhler showed that the organic substance urea could be created by chemical means that do not involve life, providing a powerful challenge to vitalism . Cell extracts ("ferments") that could effect chemical transformations were discovered, beginning with diastase in 1833. By
17365-726: The sanctuary is mixed bushveld. Upwards of 170 native bird species have been recorded, but the presence or breeding of some have been transient, due to urbanization and other factors. Resident or visiting passerine birds include thick-billed weaver , southern red bishop , common reed warbler , little rush-warbler and lesser swamp-warbler . Various heron species visit the reserve, including black-crowned night-heron , little bittern , green-backed heron , purple heron , black and little egret . Other regular water birds are red-knobbed coot , fulvous duck , Egyptian goose , white-faced duck , Cape teal and southern pochard . Pinioned crowned cranes and blue cranes have been released into
17516-502: The scope of an increasingly diverse discipline. 1900 marked the so-called rediscovery of Mendel by Carl Correns , who arrived at Mendel's laws (which were not actually present in Mendel's work). Soon after, cytologists (cell biologists) proposed that chromosomes were the hereditary material. This was taken up by Carl Correns and others between 1910 and 1915 as the "Mendelian-chromosome theory" of heredity. Thomas Hunt Morgan and
17667-444: The seminal Micrographia based on observations with his own compound microscope in 1665. But it was not until Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 's dramatic improvements in lensmaking beginning in the 1670s—ultimately producing up to 200-fold magnification with a single lens—that scholars discovered spermatozoa , bacteria , infusoria and the sheer strangeness and diversity of microscopic life. Similar investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to
17818-1032: The specimen "in the hand". The capture and marking of birds enable detailed studies of life history. Techniques for capturing birds are varied and include the use of bird liming for perching birds, mist nets for woodland birds, cannon netting for open-area flocking birds, the bal-chatri trap for raptors, decoys and funnel traps for water birds. The bird in the hand may be examined and measurements can be made, including standard lengths and weights. Feather moult and skull ossification provide indications of age and health. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually nondimorphic species. Blood samples may be drawn to determine hormonal conditions in studies of physiology, identify DNA markers for studying genetics and kinship in studies of breeding biology and phylogeography. Blood may also be used to identify pathogens and arthropod-borne viruses . Ectoparasites may be collected for studies of coevolution and zoonoses . In many cryptic species, measurements (such as
17969-594: The spread of disease. Observations and theories regarding nature and human health, separate from Western traditions , had emerged independently in other civilizations such as those in China and the Indian subcontinent . In ancient China, earlier conceptions can be found dispersed across several different disciplines, including the work of herbologists , physicians, alchemists, and philosophers . The Taoist tradition of Chinese alchemy , for example, emphasized health (with
18120-616: The study of living birds was merely recreation held sway until ecological theories became the predominant focus of ornithological studies. The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany with bird ringing stations established as early as 1903. By the 1920s, the Journal für Ornithologie included many papers on the behaviour, ecology, anatomy, and physiology, many written by Erwin Stresemann . Stresemann changed
18271-499: The study of migration. In recent times, satellite transmitters provide the ability to track migrating birds in near-real time. Techniques for estimating population density include point counts , transects , and territory mapping. Observations are made in the field using carefully designed protocols and the data may be analysed to estimate bird diversity, relative abundance, or absolute population densities. These methods may be used repeatedly over large timespans to monitor changes in
18422-407: The title of Volume 3 of Michael Christoph Hanow 's Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae: Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia , published in 1766. The term biology derives from the Greek βίος ( bíos ) 'life', and λογία ( logia ) 'branch of study'. Before biology, there were several terms used for the study of animals and plants. Natural history referred to
18573-457: The trends in the history of biology , as well as many other scientific disciplines, including ecology , anatomy , physiology , paleontology , and more recently, molecular biology. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, thus towards elucidating the processes that produce these patterns. Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since prehistory , with some stone-age drawings being amongst
18724-438: The ultimate goal being the elixir of life ). The system of classical Chinese medicine usually revolved around the theory of yin and yang , and the five phases . Taoist philosophers, such as Zhuangzi in the 4th century BCE, also expressed ideas related to evolution , such as denying the fixity of biological species and speculating that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments. One of
18875-605: The wake of Darwin's Origin of Species with the work of Francis Galton and the biometricians . The origin of genetics is usually traced to the 1866 work of the monk Gregor Mendel , who would later be credited with the laws of inheritance . However, his work was not recognized as significant until 35 years afterward. In the meantime, a variety of theories of inheritance (based on pangenesis , orthogenesis , or other mechanisms) were debated and investigated vigorously. Embryology and ecology also became central biological fields, especially as linked to evolution and popularized in
19026-528: The way they do, though these subjects also included what is now geology , physics , chemistry , and astronomy . Physiology and (botanical) pharmacology were the province of medicine. Botany , Zoology , and (in the case of fossils) Geology replaced natural history and natural philosophy in the 18th and 19th centuries before biology was widely adopted. To this day, "botany" and "zoology" are widely used, although they have been joined by other sub-disciplines of biology. Widespread travel by naturalists in
19177-551: The ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for biogeography , ecology and ethology . Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species . Cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology , were synthesized in Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection . The end of
19328-1084: The widespread interest in birds, use of a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects that cover large geographic scales has been possible. These citizen science projects include nationwide projects such as the Christmas Bird Count , Backyard Bird Count, the North American Breeding Bird Survey , the Canadian EPOQ or regional projects such as the Asian Waterfowl Census and Spring Alive in Europe. These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality, and even population genetics. The results of many of these projects are published as bird atlases . Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve
19479-463: The word ecology appeared in 1915. The Ibis , however, resisted the introduction of these new methods of study, and no paper on ecology appeared until 1943. The work of David Lack on population ecology was pioneering. Newer quantitative approaches were introduced for the study of ecology and behaviour, and this was not readily accepted. For instance, Claud Ticehurst wrote: Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what
19630-466: The work of Ernst Haeckel . Most of the 19th century work on heredity, however, was not in the realm of natural history, but that of experimental physiology. Over the course of the 19th century, the scope of physiology expanded greatly, from a primarily medically oriented field to a wide-ranging investigation of the physical and chemical processes of life—including plants, animals, and even microorganisms in addition to man. Living things as machines became
19781-404: The work of R.A. Fisher , J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright , unified the idea of evolution by natural selection with Mendelian genetics , producing the modern synthesis . The inheritance of acquired characters was rejected, while mutationism gave way as genetic theories matured. In the second half of the century the ideas of population genetics began to be applied in the new discipline of
19932-566: The works of ancient writers from Greek and Syriac . In the 12th and 13th centuries, crusades and conquest had subjugated Islamic territories in southern Italy, central Spain, and the Levant under European rule, and for the first time translations into Latin of the great works of Arabic and Greek scholars were made with the help of Jewish and Muslim scholars, especially in Toledo , which had fallen into Christian hands in 1085 and whose libraries had escaped destruction. Michael Scotus from Scotland made
20083-576: The world. Artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt. The Egyptians also made use of birds in their hieroglyphic scripts, many of which, though stylized, are still identifiable to species. Early written records provide valuable information on the past distributions of species. For instance, Xenophon records the abundance of the ostrich in Assyria (Anabasis, i. 5); this subspecies from Asia Minor
20234-446: Was also due in part to colonialism . At 100 years later, in 1959, R. E. Moreau noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds. No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards. The bird collectors of
20385-553: Was attacked in a series of experiments carried out by Louis Pasteur , while debates over vitalism vs. mechanism (a perennial issue since the time of Aristotle and the Greek atomists) continued apace. In chemistry, one central issue was the distinction between organic and inorganic substances, especially in the context of organic transformations such as fermentation and putrefaction . Since Aristotle these had been considered essentially biological ( vital ) processes. However, Friedrich Wöhler , Justus Liebig and other pioneers of
20536-400: Was developed further by Hans Gadow and others. The Galapagos finches were especially influential in the development of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution. His contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of biogeography . Wallace was influenced by the work of Philip Lutley Sclater on
20687-674: Was extremely influential, especially in the new field of experimental embryology . By the mid-1850s the miasma theory of disease was largely superseded by the germ theory of disease , creating extensive interest in microorganisms and their interactions with other forms of life. By the 1880s, bacteriology was becoming a coherent discipline, especially through the work of Robert Koch , who introduced methods for growing pure cultures on agar gels containing specific nutrients in Petri dishes . The long-held idea that living organisms could easily originate from nonliving matter ( spontaneous generation )
20838-706: Was involved in establishing Gaetz Lakes bird sanctuary. In the United States, the Breeding Bird Surveys , conducted by the United States Geological Survey , have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were subsequently established in other parts of the world. The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied, and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under
20989-491: Was part of Ibn Sīnā's massive Kitāb al-Šifāʾ . Frederick II eventually wrote his own treatise on falconry, the De arte venandi cum avibus , in which he related his ornithological observations and the results of the hunts and experiments his court enjoyed performing. Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included Guillaume Rondelet , who described his observations in
21140-469: Was passed down from father to son and was held in high regard. Of less frequent recourse was the asu , a healer who treated physical symptoms using remedies composed of herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or poultices . These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced prophylaxis and took measures to prevent
21291-668: Was pioneered by Charles Sibley and Jon Edward Ahlquist , resulting in what is called the Sibley–Ahlquist taxonomy . These early techniques have been replaced by newer ones based on mitochondrial DNA sequences and molecular phylogenetics approaches that make use of computational procedures for sequence alignment , construction of phylogenetic trees , and calibration of molecular clocks to infer evolutionary relationships. Molecular techniques are also widely used in studies of avian population biology and ecology. The use of field glasses or telescopes for bird observation began in
21442-445: Was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories. Most modern biological theories apply across life forms, and the number of scientists who identify themselves as "ornithologists" has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, both inside
21593-516: Was studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived. The ancient Mesopotamians had no distinction between "rational science" and magic . When a person became ill, doctors prescribed both magical formulas to be recited and medicinal treatments. The earliest medical prescriptions appear in Sumerian during
21744-477: Was that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck ; based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics (an inheritance mechanism that was widely accepted until the 20th century), it described a chain of development stretching from the lowliest microbe to humans. The British naturalist Charles Darwin , combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Thomas Malthus 's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise, created
21895-535: Was the Quinarian system popularised by Nicholas Aylward Vigors (1785–1840), William Sharp Macleay (1792–1865), William Swainson , and others. The idea was that nature followed a "rule of five" with five groups nested hierarchically. Some had attempted a rule of four, but Johann Jakob Kaup (1803–1873) insisted that the number five was special, noting that other natural entities such as the senses also came in fives. He followed this idea and demonstrated his view of
22046-409: Was the beginning of the end for Galenic theory, and alongside Santorio Santorio 's studies of metabolism, it served as an influential model of quantitative approaches to physiology. In the early 17th century, the micro-world of biology was just beginning to open up. A few lensmakers and natural philosophers had been creating crude microscopes since the late 16th century, and Robert Hooke published
22197-538: Was the standard reference work for over half a century, and a sequel, Island Life , in 1880 that focused on island biogeography. He extended the six-zone system developed by Philip Sclater for describing the geographical distribution of birds to animals of all kinds. His method of tabulating data on animal groups in geographic zones highlighted the discontinuities; and his appreciation of evolution allowed him to propose rational explanations, which had not been done before. The scientific study of heredity grew rapidly in
22348-402: Was used for mummification , in order to preserve human remains and forestall decomposition . The Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in the natural world as such, preferring to study how the gods had ordered the universe. Animal physiology was studied for divination , including especially the anatomy of the liver , seen as an important organ in haruspicy . Animal behavior too
22499-426: Was used to interpret observations on behaviour and life history, and birds were widely used models for testing hypotheses based on theories postulated by W. D. Hamilton and others. The new tools of molecular biology changed the study of bird systematics, which changed from being based on phenotype to the underlying genotype . The use of techniques such as DNA–DNA hybridization to study evolutionary relationships
22650-503: Was widely accepted in the early 20th century. Lamarckism , or the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics also had many adherents. Darwinism was seen as incompatible with the continuously variable traits studied by biometricians , which seemed only partially heritable. In the 1920s and 1930s—following the acceptance of the Mendelian-chromosome theory— the emergence of the discipline of population genetics , with
22801-436: Was written by Christopher Merrett in 1667, but authors such as John Ray considered it of little value. Ray did, however, value the expertise of the naturalist Sir Thomas Browne (1605–82), who not only answered his queries on ornithological identification and nomenclature, but also those of Willoughby and Merrett in letter correspondence. Browne himself in his lifetime kept an eagle, owl, cormorant, bittern, and ostrich, penned
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