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50-417: Originally used as a title bestowed by popular/clerical acclaim for a small number of the most distinguished marja' at-taqlid mujtahid , it suffered from "inflation" following the 1979 Iranian Revolution when it came to be used for "any established mujtahid". By 2015 it was further expanded to include any student who had passed their Mujtahid final exam, leading to "thousands" of Ayatollahs. The title

100-649: A Master's degree in Islamic Studies from the University of Birmingham . Additionally, AMI's 'Transfer Student Scheme' enables students from other Islamic institutions to also join the programme and pursue the MA degree. Hawza students begin their studies by learning fiqh , kalam , hadith , tafsir , philosophy , natural and abstract sciences as well as Arabic and Arabic literature . Once these studies have been completed, they may begin preparation to become

150-405: A mujtahid by studying advanced old textbooks known as sat'h , and research courses known as kharij . Subjects studied at the hawza may include the following: Once the basic studies have been completed, students may begin preparation to become a mujtahid by studying advanced ancient textbooks known as sat'h , and research courses known as kharij . To be a mujtahid one has to excel in

200-587: A hawza also functions as a law school for those wanting to practice law in Islamic courts. Hawza 'Ilmiyya in Najaf , Iraq was established in 430 AH (the 11th century AD) by Shaykh al-Tusi (385 AH/995 CE – 460 AH/1067 CE), and continued as a center of study until the establishment of modern Iraq in 1921. At present Ayatollah Sistani heads Hawza 'Ilmiyya Najaf, which includes two other Ayatollahs - Mohammad Ishaq Al-Fayyad and Bashir al-Najafi . After witnessing

250-570: A peak of some 20,000 students in the 60s, then around 3000 because of the State repression, since 2003, the Najaf hawza has now more than 13,000 students, while the curriculum has been updated to include many modern subjects as well as inter faith and inter sectarian initiatives. Although large Shi'a academies existed in Qom dating back as early as 10th century CE, the hawza of the city became prominent at

300-409: A significant following and they are recognized for religiously correct views, they are considered a Marja'-e-Taqlid , which in common parlance is "grand ayatollah". Usually as a prelude to such status, a mujtahid is asked to publish a juristic treatise in which he answers questions about the application of Islam to present-time daily affairs. Risalah is the word for treatise, and such a juristic work

350-520: A women's section to his hawza Dar al-Tabligh , called Dar al-Zahra . Next, the Haghani school opened a women's wing in 1974/75, called Maktab-e Tawhid . Outside Qom, women's seminaries included Maktab-e Fatema of Fasa (opened in 1961), Maktab-e Zahra of Shiraz (opened in 1964), Maktab-e Fatimah of Isfahan (opened by Lady Amin in 1965), Zahra-i Athar of Tehran (opened in 1966), and Madrase-ye 'Elmīyya Narges of Mashhad (opened in 1966). After

400-574: Is "circle of knowledge". Several senior Grand Ayatollahs constitute the hawza. The institutions in Najaf , Iraq and Qom , Iran , are the preeminent seminary centers for the education of Shi'a scholars . However, several smaller hawzas exist in other cities around the world, such as at Karbala , Iraq , Isfahan and Mashhad in Iran , Beirut , Lebanon , Lucknow , India , Lahore , Pakistan , Europe and North America. In countries with sharia courts such as Iran , Pakistan , and Afghanistan ,

450-405: Is a political event or dispute in your society, such as an election, and you are not sure how to act. You check the book of your marja, the risalah (treatise on practical Islamic law), and find the answers you need. Every marja has his own risalah. For things that cannot be found in those books, you turn to the nearest representative of your marja, write a letter or e-mail or, more recently, raise

500-447: Is a title given to the highest level of Twelver Shia religious cleric, with the authority given by a hawzah (a seminary where Shi'a Muslim scholars are educated) to make legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law for followers and clerics below him in rank. The highest ranking marjiʿ is known as the marja al-mutlaq or marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq . A marji' is usually also a grand ayatollah . Sources differ as to when

550-421: Is being able to raise enough money "to finance the education of religious students" from donations from the believers, is one of the qualifications of a marja'. A marja'-e taqlid must first have devoted himself to the study of Islamic law until he is qualified as a mojtahed or faqih (jurist), which means that he can derive his own legal rulings and issue edicts on religious law. Baqer Moin explains that unlike

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600-514: Is bestowed when a scholar/cleric reaches the level in the hawza (seminary) where his students and followers trust him to answer their questions on religious issues. An ayatollah must also have published a juristic book, known as a risalah amaliyah —a manual or treatise of practical religious rulings arranged according to topics dealing with ritual purity, worship, social issues, business, and political affairs. The risalah contains an ayatollah's fatwas on different topics, according to his knowledge of

650-503: Is called a risalah-yi'amaliyyah or "practical law treatise", and it is usually a reinvention of the book Al-Urwatu l-Wuthqah . A Grand Ayatollah is often seen as a spiritual guide and mentor to millions of Shia Muslims. Their influence extends beyond the mosque and into the social and political arenas. Unlike many religious leaders of other religions, a grand ayatollah is often involved in state affairs, especially in countries with large Shia populations such as Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon. In

700-566: Is found in Arabic as well as the Persian language. In Arabic, the word means "to hold something firmly". Accordingly, ḥawzah ʿilmīyah would mean a place where the firm knowledge (of the Muslim religion) is acquired. In the Persian language, ḥawzah refers to the middle part of a place or an area. Ḥawzah ʿilmīyah in Persian, therefore, means "the place of knowledge". Another meaning of the word

750-510: Is not only lawful but obligatory on many religious questions for all Muslims not so trained themselves; (on "matters of belief" or usulu 'din , it is obligatory for Shi'a to train themselves). From the perspective of Shi'i jurisprudence, during the occultation of the Mahdi , (for the past 1000+ years) the highest ranking Shia hawzah clerics are bestowed with responsibility for understanding and explaining Islamic religious jurisprudence. As of

800-674: Is not used by the Sunni community of Iran, nor by Shias in Lebanon , Pakistan , or India . In Iraq , the title is not unknown, but is only used for clerics of Iranian origin. In the Western world – especially after the Iranian Revolution – it was associated with Ruhollah Khomeini , who was so well known as to often be referred to as "The Ayatollah". The title is originally derived from Arabic word Āyah pre-modified with

850-404: Is the fatwa of Mirza Mohammed Hassan Husseini Shirazi imposing sanctions on the use of tobacco during Qajar rule, which led to the abolition of the tobacco concession. Hawza A hawza ( Arabic : حوزة ) or ḥawzah ʿilmīyah ( Arabic : حوزة علمیة ) is the collective term (plural hawzat) for a madrasa (i.e. seminary ) where Shi'a Muslim scholars are educated. The word ḥawzah

900-563: The 1979 revolution in Iran, the state began to centralize the women's hawza system. The women's seminaries in Qom were centralized into one large school, the Jamiat al-Zahra . In Khorasan with its clerical center of Mashhad, the women's maktabs came under the aegis of the state-run Centre for Management of Women's Seminaries of Khorasan. In the rest of the country, women's seminaries were integrated into

950-793: The definite article al and post-modified with the word Allah , making ʾāyatu llāh ( Arabic : آية الله ). The combination has been translated to English as 'Sign of God', 'Divine Sign' or 'Reflection of God'. It is a frequently-used term in Quran , but its usage in this context is presumably a particular reference to the verse 41:53 "We shall show them Our signs on the horizons and in their own selves", while it has been also used to refer to The Twelve Imams by Shias. Variants used are ʾāyatu llāhi fī l-ʾanʿām ( Arabic : آية الله في الأنعام , lit.   'Sign of God among mankind'), ʾāyatu llāhi fī l-ʿālamayn ( Arabic : آية الله في العالمَین , lit.   'Sign of God in

1000-453: The 19th century, the Shia ulama taught believers to turn to "a source of taqlid " ( marja' at-taqlid ) "for advice and guidance and as a model to be imitated." Abbas Djavadi gives examples of how a muqallid would imitate their marja' : Imagine you are a Shi'ite Muslim facing a long intercontinental flight and you aren't sure how to arrange your prayers or ablutions. Or imagine there

1050-624: The Catholic pope or Christian bishops, he is not chosen by an electoral college, or by any other formal procedure. It is incumbent on every believer or `imitator` to make his or her own choice of marja'-e taqlid on the ground that he is the most learned mojtahed of his time and a man of great moral probity. "Of course, most ordinary people are not in a position to judge who is the most learned, so believers are instructed either to inquire of two upright and knowledgeable persons who are not contradicted by two other similar persons, or to satisfy themselves on

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1100-939: The Centre for Management of Women's Seminaries (Markaz-e Modiriat-e Ḥawzahā-ye ʿElmiyya Khwaharān). Since the mid-1990s the latter center has established more than 300 seminaries across Iran (before the revolution less than a dozen existed in the entire country). There are also a number of ḥawzah in the West particularly in the United Kingdom. One of longest established hawza in the UK is Al-Mahdi Institute (AMI). Founded in 1993 by Shaykh Arif Abdulhussain, who received ijāza of ijtihād from Ayatollah Hussain Amini and Ayatollah Professor Sayyid Mostafa Mohaghegh Damad , Al-Mahdi Institute began as an Islamic educational institute (hawza) with

1150-537: The West, particularly the United States , the term "Ayatollah" may be used as a pejorative to describe religious fundamentalism. Sam Miller of London Review of Books states that following the Iranian Revolution, "ayatollah" became common use; Miller described the pejorative version of the term as "[evoking] evokes an old, turbaned, bearded man, sitting in judgment, looking like a crow and ordering

1200-544: The curricula include: Since the revolution of 1979 new madrasas have been founded in Qom, including There are also a number of women's hawza, mostly located in Iran . Already in the early 1800s, the Salehiyya madrasa in Qazvin ran a women's section where several female mujtahids were trained. In Qom, the earliest seminary for women was established by the grand ayatollah Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari , who in 1973 added

1250-536: The early 1990s, the leading marja', Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei , died and Ali Sistani , "emerged" as the marja al-mutlaq or highest Marja' in the world of Shia Islam. According to Mohamad Bazzi, Sistani's word "on religious matters carries the most weight" among Shia. However, in 1994, the regime of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) declared it was the Supreme Leader of Iran , Ali Khamenei who

1300-527: The evidence of a group of learned and upright persons. In practice this means that most people rely on the assurances of their local mollahs, who in their turn will be influenced by people they respect or are further up the religious hierarchy. Hence the importance to any leading divine of a following among students and the lesser clergy, who will promote his position in this informal process of consultation." Shiʿi "biographical compilations generally" consider Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (d. 940 or 941) – one of

1350-618: The execution of the impure." However, the term is generally used to describe any kind of fundamentalism, not just Islamism. For example, in the United States, former jurist and lawyer Roy Moore has been called the "Ayatollah of Alabama" by his critics due to espousing Christian nationalism , opposition to secularism , and far-right politics. Marja%27 Marja ' ( Arabic : مرجع , romanized :  marjiʿ  ; plural marājiʿ  ; lit.   ' source to follow ' or ' religious reference ' )

1400-485: The fact no official institutional way of conferring titles is available. At first the title that had been reserved for a Marja', was gradually applied to an established Mujtahid. With the post-revolutionary bureaucratization of Shia seminaries under the Islamic Republic , four levels of studies were introduced and those clerics who end the fourth level, also known as Dars-e-Kharej ( lit.   ' beyond

1450-496: The first compilers of Shiʿite hadith – to be "the first" post-occultation marja al-taqlid, according to Neguin Yavari and Eric Hooglund. However, according to Robert Gleave , the institution of the marja˓ did not emerged until the nineteenth century, with the first universally recognized marja˓, "the influential mujtahid Murtadha al-Ansari (d. 1864)". Still another source – four mullahs at al-islam.org who were asked directly "Who

1500-399: The institution of the marja˓ emerged, with Murtadha al-Ansari (died 1864) and Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (died 940 or 941) both being called the first marja'. As of 2023 there are approximately over 50 living maraji , almost all residing in Iran or Iraq. Currently, maraji' are accorded the title grand ayatollah ( Arabic : آية ‌الله العظمی ʾĀyatullāh al-ʿUẓmā ). Previously,

1550-412: The license to engage in ijtihad ( ʾijāz al-ʾijtihād ) from one or several ayatollahs. However ijtihad is not always comprehensive and so a mujtahid may be an expert in one particular area of Islamic jurisprudence ( fiqh ) and exercise ijtihad therein, but follow a marja' in other areas of fiqh. Several senior grand ayatollahs preside over hawzas (religious seminaries). The hawzas of Qom and Najaf are

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1600-572: The most authentic Islamic sources and their application to current life. Traditionally only the most renowned ayatollahs of the given time published a risalah. Today, however, many ayatollahs of varying degrees of illustriousness have published one, while some of the renowned ones have refused to do so. Marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq The highest marja' or "first-among-equals", is called the Marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq . Traditionally, taqlid or "imitation" of an expert in Islamic jurisprudence (a mujtahid )

1650-437: The number of people who claimed that title was reportedly over 50. Another post- revolutionary change in what makes an ayatollah has been the falling away (at least in many important situations), of purely religious credentials and informal acclamation, and its replacement by political criteria. Ali Khamenei —who was addressed with mid-level title of Hujjat al-Islam when he was in office as President of Iran —was bestowed

1700-514: The objective of combining traditional seminarian scholarship with modern academic study approaches. The Hawza Programme is at the core of AMI's educational offerings. Modeled on the curriculums of the ḥawzah of Qom and Najaf , it offers training in classical Islamic sciences , employing a critical and academic approach. Courses are primarily taught in English with Arabic language instruction. The programme culminates in eligibility for

1750-790: The preeminent seminary centers for the training of Shia clergymen . However, there are other smaller hawzas in many other cities around the world, the biggest ones being Karbala (Iraq), Isfahan (Iran) and Mashhad (Iran). There are 56 maraji living worldwide as of 2023, mostly residing in Najaf and Qom . The most prominent among them are Hossein Vahid Khorasani , Ali Khamenei , Mousa Shubairi Zanjani , Sayyid Sadeq Rohani , Naser Makarem Shirazi , Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi , Hossein Noori Hamedani and Abdollah Javadi-Amoli in Qom; Ali Sistani , Muhammad al-Fayadh , Muhammad Saeed al-Hakim and Bashir al-Najafi in Najaf. In

1800-422: The question on the website of your marja and receive your answer. Where a difference in opinion exists between the maraji', each of them provides their own opinion and the muqallid (their followers) will follow their own marja's opinion on that subject. Exempted from the requirement to follow a marja' are mujtahid , i.e. someone who has completed advanced training ( dars kharij ) in the hawza and has acquired

1850-471: The rulers were downgraded by not being addressed as an Ayatollah. The earliest known address of this title is for Ibn Mutahhar Al-Hilli (died 1374), however it was not in use as a title for those qualifying until the 20th century. Glassé states that following domination of Twelver branch by followers of Usuli school and demise of Akhbari school, the title was popularized by Usuli s as an attempt to promote their status. Mirza Ali Aqa Tabrizi

1900-425: The text ' ) and pass the final exam, were called Ayatollahs. Moojan Momen wrote in 2015 that every cleric who finished his training calls himself an Ayatollah and this trend has led to emergence of "thousands of Ayatollahs". This inflation led to invention of a new title, Ayatollah al-Uzma ( lit.   ' Great Sign of God ' ). Originally, about half a dozen people were addressed as al-Uzma, but as of 2015,

1950-513: The time of the Safavids when Shi'a Islam became the official religion of Iran. The famous teachers of that era included Mulla Sadra and Shaykh Bahai . The modern Qom hawza (since 1340 AH/1921 CE) was revitalized by Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi and Grand Ayatollah Borujerdi and is barely a century old. As of 1975, major madrasas in Qom which offered religious education included traditional madrasas which incorporate some modern elements in

2000-414: The title Ayatollah immediately after he was elected Supreme Leader of Iran in 1989, without meeting regular unwritten criteria (such as authoring a Risalah ). Since the 2010s, sources under government control tend to give him more distinguished titles like Grand Ayatollah and Imam . Certain clerics, such as Mohammad Kazem Shariatmadari and Hussein-Ali Montazeri , who had fallen out of favor with

2050-436: The title Ayatollah was awarded by popular usage only to the very few highest ranking, prominent Mujtahid . Qualifications included Consequently, by the 1960s a cleric addressed as an Ayatollah was expected to be a Marja' . The title of Ayatollah (and other Iranian Shi'i titles) has been "cheapened" since then. Roy Mottahedeh describes how the title of ayatollah was determined in the mid to late 20th century. Only

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2100-408: The title on him. According to Michael M. J. Fischer , the Iranian Revolution led to "rapid inflation of religious titles", so that almost every senior cleric began to be called an Ayatollah. raising the number of individuals who call themselves an Ayatollah dramatically. An unwritten rule of addressing for Shia clerics has been developed after the 1980s as a result of Iranian Revolution, despite

2150-592: The titles 'jurisconsult' ( faqih ) and 'model for imitation' ( marja' al-taqlid ) had fixed meaning. Otherwise titles ... really expressed the informal consensus of mullahs as to the degree of deference they wished to show one another. A teacher in madreseh might be greatly offended if a letter from a layman failed to call him 'ayatollah', but he would vigorously reject the title if addressed as an ayatollah in public - vigorously, that is, until he sensed that other mullahs of his level would tolerate hearing him so addressed, at which point he would quietly let his students impose

2200-417: The titles of Allamah (such as Allameh Tabatabaei , Allameh Majlesi , Allameh Hilli ) and Imam (such as Imam Khomeini , Imam Rohani , Imam Shirazi and Imam Sadr ) have also been used. Another source (Abbas Djavadi) states a marja' is "usually" a grand ayatollah. Someone who follows/"imitates" a marja' (who performs taqlid ) is known as a muqallid . Ayatollahs The title of an ayatollah

2250-413: The two worlds', dual form ) or fī l-ʿālamīn ( Arabic : في العالمین , lit.   'in the worlds', plural form ) and ʾāyatu llāhi fī l-warā ( Arabic : آية الله في الورى , lit.   'Sign of God among mortals'). Though no formal hierarchical structure exists among Shia clerics, a "hierarchy of difference" can be elaborated to describe the situation. Traditionally,

2300-451: Was "the single marja˓ al-taqlid" or "undisputed marja˓". According to Mohamad Bazzi, this was a bid "to displace" Ali Sistani, the true Marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq , "and his allies in Najaf ", but it "failed" because Khamenei "had modest religious credentials (he was only elevated to the rank of ayatollah after Khomeini's death, so he could assume the post of supreme leader). Faced with Baathist persecution and an Iranian power grab, Sistani

2350-640: Was able to retain his position." Gleave does not mention Sistani but states that Khamenei's "position as the Marja˓ al-taqlid" has "remained a matter of dispute". There is no formalized specific process nor official body resembling a council of ulama to designate someone a marja al-taqlid, because reaching the position of marja al-taqlid "is entirely at the discretion of the believers themselves". Nonetheless, there are "general principles" for their selection including several "conditions" which have been "accepted unanimously by Shiʿite theologians". Another condition

2400-471: Was an "indirect result of the reform and strengthening of the religious institution in Qom ". Abdul-Karim Haeri Yazdi (1859–1937) who founded Qom Seminary , may be the first to bear the title according to Algar. While the title Ayatollah was sporadically used during the 1930s, it became widespread in the 1940s. Only a few of the most important ayatollahs are accorded the rank of Grand Ayatollah ( Ayatollah Uzma , "Great Sign of God"). When an ayatollah gains

2450-587: Was the first ever Marja-e-Taqleed?" – was non-committal. Only one of four (Mohammad Al-Musawi) replied and would only say, "from the time of the Prophet (SAWA) and the Infallible Imams, Muslims who lived in places far away from them, were ordered to refer in religious matters to the scholar in their area". Shiite authorities in the history of Shi'ism have an important role in the religious, political and social thought of their communities. One example

2500-548: Was the first one to use the term Ayatullah for the sources of emulation in Najaf, especially Akhund Khurasani (1839–1911), to distinguish them from the clerics of lower rank in Tehran, during the 1905-1911 Persian Constitutional Revolution . ( Mirza Sayyed Mohammad Tabatabai and Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani were also given that honorific by constitutionalists according to Loghatnameh Dehkhoda .) Hamid Algar maintains that this title entered general usage possibly because it

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