A concert tour (or simply tour ) is a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different cities, countries or locations. Often, concert tours are named to differentiate different tours by the same artist and to associate a specific tour with a particular album or product. Especially in the popular music world, such tours can become large-scale enterprises that last for several months or even years, are seen by hundreds of thousands or millions of people, and bring in millions of dollars in ticket revenues. A performer who embarks on a concert tour is called a touring artist .
93-603: Bad was the first solo concert tour by American singer Michael Jackson , launched in support of his seventh studio album Bad (1987). The 123-show world tour began on September 12, 1987 in Japan, and concluded on January 27, 1989 in the United States, and sponsored by soft drink manufacturer Pepsi . It grossed a total of $ 125 million, making it the second highest-grossing tour of the 1980s after Pink Floyd 's Momentary Lapse of Reason tour , and earning two new entries in
186-414: A core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber , or gradual, in graded-index fiber . Light can be fed into optical fibers using lasers or LEDs . Fiber
279-463: A road manager whereas large concert tours are managed by a tour manager . The main challenge in concert tours is how to move the performance's logistics from one venue to another venue, especially for a transcontinental tour. Tour logistics should be very organized and everything has to happen on time and in the right order as planned. Autoweek magazine estimated 30 to 50 trucks were required by Taylor Swift 's The 1989 World Tour to bring all
372-411: A wavelength shifter collect scintillation light in physics experiments . Fiber-optic sights for handguns, rifles, and shotguns use pieces of optical fiber to improve the visibility of markings on the sight. An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide ( nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis through the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of
465-426: A 16,000-kilometer distance, means that there is a minimum delay of 80 milliseconds (about 1 12 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{12}}} of a second) between when one caller speaks and the other hears. When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle of incidence (larger than the critical angle for the boundary), the light is completely reflected. This
558-423: A cladding made of pure silica, with an index of 1.444 at 1500 nm, and a core of doped silica with an index around 1.4475. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a simple rule of thumb is that a signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200,000 kilometers per second. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York,
651-513: A contrast to the Japanese audience, who were instructed to remain quiet and make little noise, and made it difficult for the group to hear the count-ins at the beginning of a number. The November 28 show in Brisbane was recorded and broadcast. During the concert, Jackson brought Stevie Wonder on stage to sing "Bad" with him. Following the 1987 dates Jackson wanted to revamp the production with
744-451: A digital audio optical connection. This allows the streaming of audio over light, using the S/PDIF protocol over an optical TOSLINK connection. Fibers have many uses in remote sensing . In some applications, the fiber itself is the sensor (the fibers channel optical light to a processing device that analyzes changes in the light's characteristics). In other cases, fiber is used to connect
837-514: A five-year-old boy who was kidnapped and murdered, after he watched a news report about the tragedy. Attendance figures for the first 14 dates in Japan totaled a record-breaking 450,000. Crowds of 200,000 were what past performers could manage to draw for a single tour. Some shows were filmed by Nippon TV and the September 26 show in Yokohama was broadcast on Japanese television. Jackson wrapped
930-696: A larger stage set-up, the addition of new numbers including " Smooth Criminal " and " Man in the Mirror ", and new musical arrangements. Kaplan revisited the studio recordings and prepared tapes for each band member to follow. During this time Phillinganes took over as musical director and Kaplan became technical director. Rehearsals for the new set-up took place at the Pensacola Civic Center in Florida from January 22 to February 18, 1988. Vincent Paterson , who had worked with Jackson on several videos,
1023-522: A lasting impact on structures . It is based on the principle of measuring analog attenuation. In spectroscopy , optical fiber bundles transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance that cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects remotely. An optical fiber doped with certain rare-earth elements such as erbium can be used as
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#17327975412731116-423: A network in an office building (see fiber to the office ), fiber-optic cabling can save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can carry much more data than electrical cables such as standard category 5 cable , which typically runs at 100 Mbit/s or 1 Gbit/s speeds. Fibers are often also used for short-distance connections between devices. For example, most high-definition televisions offer
1209-793: A new form of theatrical entertainment, a fusion of song, performance art, innovative stage craft, and state-of-the-art technology. She managed to popularize the Las Vegas residency as a desirable way for top artists to essentially tour in place, letting their fans come to them. American singer Lady Gaga , who cancelled the 2018 European leg of her Joanne World Tour , signed for a Las Vegas residency to help manage her fibromyalgia illness, which can be exacerbated by touring. The 2015 study by charity Help Musicians found that over 60% of musicians suffered from depression or other psychological issues, with touring an issue for 71% of respondents. Optical fiber An optical fiber , or optical fibre ,
1302-451: A promotional campaign to support an album release. Hence, new songs from the respective album are included on its tour's setlist . Some tours are known as "greatest hits tours" or "reunion tour" without any new material or specific album release, such as Fleetwood Mac 's 2009 Unleashed tour and No Doubt 's 2009 Summer Tour . Taylor Swift 's The Eras Tour (2023–2024) is a retrospective of her career to that point, where each act of
1395-576: A return to Tokyo for nine shows in December which included a concert on Christmas Day. This would be the last time he toured his native country, aside from two shows in Hawaii in 1997 and a handful of one-off appearances in 2001 and 2002. On October 23, 1988, he donated $ 125,000, the net proceeds of the first show in Auburn Hills , to the city's Motown Museum . This second American tour alone grossed
1488-474: A sensor to a measurement system. Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain , temperature , pressure , and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the property being measured modulates the intensity , phase , polarization , wavelength , or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors
1581-649: A target without a clear line-of-sight path. Many microscopes use fiber-optic light sources to provide intense illumination of samples being studied. Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope , which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures. Industrial endoscopes (see fiberscope or borescope ) are used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. In some buildings, optical fibers route sunlight from
1674-606: A total of $ 20.3 million , the sixth largest of the year. The tour was planned to end in Tokyo, but Jackson suffered from swollen vocal cords after the first of six concerts in Los Angeles in November, and the remaining five were rescheduled for January 1989. Due to this rescheduling, Phillinganes had to disembark from the tour in early January, having already made commitments to tour with Eric Clapton . Studio musician John Barnes
1767-524: A transparent cladding. Later that same year, Harold Hopkins and Narinder Singh Kapany at Imperial College in London succeeded in making image-transmitting bundles with over 10,000 fibers, and subsequently achieved image transmission through a 75 cm long bundle which combined several thousand fibers. The first practical fiber optic semi-flexible gastroscope was patented by Basil Hirschowitz , C. Wilbur Peters, and Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at
1860-459: A videotape of a previous performance in case Jackson made any undesirable political comments. The most successful of the European dates were those in London at Wembley Stadium , where demand for the five July dates exceeded 1.5 million, enough to fill the 72,000-capacity venue 20 times. Jackson went on to perform seven sold-out shows at Wembley for a total of 504,000 people which entered him into
1953-485: Is Taylor Swift 's Eras Tour , with $ 2.089 billion earned from 125 shows. In 2024, Coldplay 's Music of the Spheres World Tour became the second tour to gross $ 1 billion in revenue. In third place is Elton John 's Farewell Yellow Brick Road , with a total gross of $ 939 million from 2018–2023. On fourth place is Ed Sheeran 's ÷ Tour , with a gross of $ 776.2 million. On fifth place
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#17327975412732046-400: Is U2 's 360° Tour , with $ 736.4 million. Global touring revenue reported to Billboard Boxscore exceeded $ 5.5 billion in 2016. Due to the collapse of record sales in the 21st century, concert tours have become a major source of income for recording artists. Besides the tickets, touring also generates money from the sales of merchandise and meet-and-greet packages. However,
2139-468: Is a mechanical splice , where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors . The field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics . The term was coined by Indian-American physicist Narinder Singh Kapany . Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet first demonstrated
2232-591: Is a flexible glass or plastic fiber that can transmit light from one end to the other. Such fibers find wide usage in fiber-optic communications , where they permit transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data transfer rates) than electrical cables. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are immune to electromagnetic interference . Fibers are also used for illumination and imaging, and are often wrapped in bundles so they may be used to carry light into, or images out of confined spaces, as in
2325-439: Is a peculiar thing, it doesn't suit me particularly well. I'm a real homebody and I get so much joy in the small things." A concert residency concept is offered as an alternative to performers who just need to stay in one venue and the fans come to see them. The concept has been revitalized in the 21st century by Canadian superstar Céline Dion with the success of her A New Day... residency (2003–2007). Her residency introduced
2418-453: Is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum , such as in outer space. The speed of light in vacuum is about 300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second. The refractive index of a medium is calculated by dividing the speed of light in vacuum by the speed of light in that medium. The refractive index of vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. A typical single-mode fiber used for telecommunications has
2511-411: Is bent towards the perpendicular ... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface... The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of
2604-412: Is called multi-mode fiber , from the electromagnetic analysis (see below). In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at an angle (measured relative to a line normal to the boundary) greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle is determined by
2697-418: Is called total internal reflection . This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Most modern optical fiber is weakly guiding , meaning that the difference in refractive index between the core and the cladding is very small (typically less than 1%). Light travels through the fiber core, bouncing back and forth off the boundary between the core and cladding. Because the light must strike
2790-507: Is designed for use in the near infrared . Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section. These include polarization-maintaining fiber used in fiber optic sensors and fiber designed to suppress whispering gallery mode propagation. Photonic-crystal fiber
2883-565: Is far less than in electrical copper cables, leading to long-haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 70–150 kilometers (43–93 mi). Two teams, led by David N. Payne of the University of Southampton and Emmanuel Desurvire at Bell Labs , developed the erbium-doped fiber amplifier , which reduced the cost of long-distance fiber systems by reducing or eliminating optical-electrical-optical repeaters, in 1986 and 1987 respectively. The emerging field of photonic crystals led to
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2976-564: Is immune to electrical interference as there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Information traveling inside the optical fiber is even immune to electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear devices. Fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber useful for protecting communications equipment in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities or applications prone to lightning strikes. The electrical isolation also prevents problems with ground loops . Because there
3069-418: Is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the fiber cores, and the coupling of these aligned cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common. In this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique
3162-611: Is kept in the core by the phenomenon of total internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide . Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers , while those that support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,050 meters (3,440 ft). Being able to join optical fibers with low loss
3255-405: Is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in the form of cylindrical holes that run along the length of the fiber). Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the fiber's core. The properties of the fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of applications. Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss,
3348-412: Is monitored and analyzed for disturbances. This return signal is digitally processed to detect disturbances and trip an alarm if an intrusion has occurred. Optical fibers are widely used as components of optical chemical sensors and optical biosensors . Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light into electricity. While this method of power transmission
3441-439: Is no electricity in optical cables that could potentially generate sparks, they can be used in environments where explosive fumes are present. Wiretapping (in this case, fiber tapping ) is more difficult compared to electrical connections. Fiber cables are not targeted for metal theft . In contrast, copper cable systems use large amounts of copper and have been targeted since the 2000s commodities boom . The refractive index
3534-478: Is not as efficient as conventional ones, it is especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in the case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields. Other examples are for powering electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high-voltage transmission equipment. Optical fibers are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on
3627-418: Is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter. Distributed acoustic sensing is one example of this. In contrast, highly localized measurements can be provided by integrating miniaturized sensing elements with the tip of the fiber. These can be implemented by various micro- and nanofabrication technologies, such that they do not exceed the microscopic boundary of
3720-422: Is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. Single-mode fiber has a small NA. Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical optics . Such fiber
3813-474: Is the measurement of temperature inside jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a pyrometer outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers , where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and torsion. A solid-state version of
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3906-428: Is the reduction in the intensity of the light signal as it travels through the transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber optics are usually expressed in units of dB/km. The medium is usually a fiber of silica glass that confines the incident light beam within. Attenuation is an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across large distances. Thus, much research has gone into both limiting
3999-484: Is typical in deployed systems. Through the use of wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light. The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the forward error correction (FEC) overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to 80 in commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008 ). For short-distance applications, such as
4092-402: Is used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because infrared light propagates through the fiber with much lower attenuation compared to electricity in electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters . 10 or 40 Gbit/s
4185-579: The Guinness World Records for the largest grossing tour in history and the tour with the largest attended audience. It was nominated for "Tour of the Year 1988" at the inaugural International Rock Awards . At the end of the Bad tour, Jackson made a public statement that he intended for it to be his last as a touring artist, as he had plans to transition to filmmaking; however, it was followed by
4278-474: The Guinness World Records , the first of three times from the tour alone. The record surpassed the previous attendance record shared by Madonna , Bruce Springsteen , and Genesis . More shows could have been added, but the venue had reached its quota for live performances. The third concert was attended by Diana, Princess of Wales and Prince Charles , and subsequently released as Live at Wembley July 16, 1988 . On July 30, NBC aired Michael Jackson Around
4371-781: The Berlin Wall in front of the Reichstag Building . After Jackson's death it was revealed that the Stasi had kept a file on him, making extensive preparations to prevent East German fans to gather at the Brandenburg Gate to listen to the concert. The plan also involved broadcasting the concert in a stadium in East Berlin with a two-minute delay, so the East Germans could replace the live performance with
4464-667: The Dangerous World Tour in 1992–1993 and the HIS tory World Tour in 1996–1997. Except for two shows in Hawaii during the HIS tory Tour, this would be the only time that Jackson would tour the United States as a solo artist. On June 29, 1987, Jackson's manager Frank DiLeo held a press conference in Tokyo to announce that the 29-year-old Jackson would embark on his first concert tour as a solo artist. It marked his first concerts since
4557-471: The University of Michigan , in 1956. In the process of developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-clad fibers; previous optical fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material. Kapany coined the term fiber optics after writing a 1960 article in Scientific American that introduced the topic to a wide audience. He subsequently wrote
4650-600: The Victory Tour in 1984 which he performed with his brothers as the Jacksons . DiLeo said the tour would start with a Japanese leg because of the country's loyal fans. In a written statement, Jackson, who was completing Bad in Los Angeles, promised "thrilling and exciting" concerts. The soft drink manufacturer Pepsi , with whom Jackson and his brothers had a deal worth an estimated $ 5 million per year, sponsored
4743-405: The gain medium of a fiber laser or optical amplifier . Rare-earth-doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through
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#17327975412734836-453: The 1987 dates weighed 110,000 lbs. Jackson assisted in the stage design, which consisted of 700 lights, 100 speakers, 40 lasers, three mirrors, and two 24-by-18 foot screens. Performers wore 70 costumes, four of which were attached with fiber optic lights. While in Osaka, Jackson received the key to the city by the mayor. In Tokyo, Jackson donated $ 20,000 to the parents of Yoshiaki Hagiwara,
4929-743: The Japanese leg by donating several personalised items for a charity auction, including clothes and glasses worn during the tour. Jackson left Japan for a rest period in Hong Kong and China before the Australian leg. On October 30, a planned New Zealand leg was cancelled as local promoters were unable to meet demands that the audience be seated, although dates there and Australia were also cancelled due to low ticket sales. Between November 13 and 28, Jackson performed five concerts in Melbourne , Sydney , and Brisbane . The loud and enthusiastic crowds were
5022-675: The Leeds facility in North Hollywood. Keyboardist Rory Kaplan, who had played on the Victory Tour, was touring with the Chick Corea Elektric Band when he was asked by Jackson's secretary to join his group as musical director, which Kaplan accepted. The original idea was to bring in former Victory Tour drummer Jonathan Moffett and guitarist David Williams, but the pair were on tour with Madonna . Jackson wanted
5115-658: The Mirror during 30th Anniversary Grammy Awards on March 2nd. The European leg began in Rome on May 23, where police and security guards rescued hundreds of fans from being crushed in the crowd of 35,000. Police reported 130 women had fainted at the concert in Vienna. While in Switzerland, Jackson went to Vevey to meet Oona O'Neill , the widow of actor Charlie Chaplin . On June 19, Jackson performed in West Berlin close to
5208-545: The Synclaviers alone cost $ 1.4 million. Since he was primarily a guitarist and not a keyboardist, he purchased a SynthAxe MIDI controller guitar to trigger cues to a computer which operated the Synclaviers. The audition performances were filmed and played to Jackson at his home in the evening. The band had just two weeks to rehearse at Leeds before production rehearsals followed at Universal Studios for another three, although no full production in its entirety happened until
5301-589: The World , a 90-minute special documenting the singer on tour. On August 29, after a birthday performance in Leeds , Jackson donated $ 130,000 to Give for Life. The final European show was held in Liverpool at Aintree Racecourse , where 1,550 fans were reported injured among the crowd of 125,000, the largest show of the tour. Jackson toured the United States for a second time between September 1988 and January 1989, with
5394-614: The Year 1988" at the inaugural International Rock Awards. It lost to Amnesty International . A live album and DVD of the July 16, 1988, concert in London titled Live at Wembley July 16, 1988 was released along with the special edition reissue of the Bad album titled Bad 25 on September 18, 2012, as well as a stand-alone DVD. Video of the September 26, 1987, Concert in Yokohama , Japan ,
5487-564: The attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities that could be removed, rather than by fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber and pointed out the right material to use for such fibers— silica glass with high purity. This discovery earned Kao the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009. The crucial attenuation limit of 20 dB/km
5580-416: The boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. There is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle
5673-457: The cameras had to be supervised by someone with an appropriate security clearance. Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), making fibers a practical communication medium, in 1965. They proposed that
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#17327975412735766-416: The case of a fiberscope . Specially designed fibers are also used for a variety of other applications, such as fiber optic sensors and fiber lasers . Glass optical fibers are typically made by drawing , while plastic fibers can be made either by drawing or by extrusion . Optical fibers typically include a core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with a lower index of refraction . Light
5859-408: The concert represents one of her albums . In another case, artists embark on a concert tour to celebrate the anniversary of their past albums, such as U2 's 2017 tour to mark the 30th anniversary of The Joshua Tree (1987) and Janet Jackson 's 2019 tour to commemorate the 30th anniversary of Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814 (1989). A farewell tour is a concert tour intended to signal
5952-407: The core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths reduce multi-path dispersion because high-angle rays pass more through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather than the high-index center. The index profile is chosen to minimize the difference in axial propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. This ideal index profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and
6045-442: The development in 1991 of photonic-crystal fiber , which guides light by diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than by total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000. Photonic crystal fibers can carry higher power than conventional fibers and their wavelength-dependent properties can be manipulated to improve performance. These fibers can have hollow cores. Optical fiber
6138-467: The difference in the index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding where they terminate. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture . A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into
6231-445: The distance from the axis. Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic waveguide structure, according to Maxwell's equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation . As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along
6324-621: The doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that causes the amplification is stimulated emission . Optical fiber is also widely exploited as a nonlinear medium. The glass medium supports a host of nonlinear optical interactions, and the long interaction lengths possible in fiber facilitate a variety of phenomena, which are harnessed for applications and fundamental investigation. Conversely, fiber nonlinearity can have deleterious effects on optical signals, and measures are often required to minimize such unwanted effects. Optical fibers doped with
6417-424: The fiber tip, allowing for such applications as insertion into blood vessels via hypodermic needle. Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable , normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor—or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach otherwise inaccessible places. An example
6510-404: The fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode . The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not completely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as an evanescent wave . The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8–10 micrometers and
6603-438: The fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different amounts of time to traverse the fiber. In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases continuously between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting abruptly from
6696-415: The final Los Angeles (January 27, 1989) concert have been crowdfunded and released on YouTube. Audio recordings from the rehearsal at Pensacola , Florida (February 18, 1988) have also been released as well. Atlanta (April 13, 1988), Auburn Hills (October 24, 1988), Osaka (October 12, 1987), Tokyo (September 13, 1987), have been leaked. The following set list was performed during the first leg of
6789-411: The final show. In 16 months, Jackson performed 123 concerts in 15 countries to an audience of 4.5 million for a total gross of $ 125 million . The American tour alone grossed a total of $ 20.3 million , the sixth largest of the year. Guinness World Records recognized the tour as the largest grossing in history and the tour to play to the most people ever. In April 1989, the tour was nominated for "Tour of
6882-493: The first book about the new field. The first working fiber-optic data transmission system was demonstrated by German physicist Manfred Börner at Telefunken Research Labs in Ulm in 1965, followed by the first patent application for this technology in 1966. In 1968, NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that were sent to the moon. At the time, the use in the cameras was classified confidential , and employees handling
6975-575: The first show. The tour began with a 14-date leg across Japan, marking Jackson's first performances in the country since 1973 as part of the Jackson 5. Nine shows were originally announced but they sold out within hours, so five more were added due to the high demand. The shows cost the sponsors $ 8.6 million to stage. Jackson arrived at Tokyo's Narita International Airport on September 9, where over 300 reporters and photographers greeted him upon his arrival. The staging, lighting, and musical equipment for
7068-458: The guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London , 12 years later. Tyndall also wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870: When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray
7161-469: The gyroscope, using the interference of light, has been developed. The fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) has no moving parts and exploits the Sagnac effect to detect mechanical rotation. Common uses for fiber optic sensors include advanced intrusion detection security systems . The light is transmitted along a fiber optic sensor cable placed on a fence, pipeline, or communication cabling, and the returned signal
7254-413: The medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, while for a diamond it is 23°42′. In the late 19th century, a team of Viennese doctors guided light through bent glass rods to illuminate body cavities. Practical applications such as close internal illumination during dentistry followed, early in the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by
7347-486: The most common means of separating legs are dates (especially if there is a long break at some point), countries and/or continents, or different opening acts. In the largest concert tours, it has become more common for different legs to employ separate touring production crews and equipment, local to each geographical region. Concert tours are often administered on the local level by concert promoters or by performing arts presenters . Usually, small concert tours are managed by
7440-473: The music on stage to sound like the albums, and asked Chris Currell, who had played the Synclavier synthesizer and sampler on Bad , to play it live. Currell arranged to have three complete systems: two to handle the music on stage and one for his hotel room for Jackson to record ideas while travelling, plus a dismantled setup for spare parts in case of a problem, and a full time technician. Currell estimated
7533-669: The plan as it was home to Coca-Cola. For both Atlanta shows, Jackson gave 100 tickets to the Children's Wish Foundation for terminally ill children to attend. The first of three concerts at Madison Square Garden in New York City in March served as a benefit to raise $ 500,000 to the United Negro College Fund . Jackson presented a check of $ 600,000 to the fund. He performed songs The Way You Make Me Feel and Man in
7626-416: The radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. In the 1930s, Heinrich Lamm showed that one could transmit images through a bundle of unclad optical fibers and used it for internal medical examinations, but his work was largely forgotten. In 1953, Dutch scientist Bram van Heel first demonstrated image transmission through bundles of optical fibers with
7719-406: The retirement of a singer, the disbanding of a band, or the end of a show's run. Many of the tours end up not being the last tour, with frequent regroupings, or revivals of shows. Luciano Pavarotti 's 2004 tour and Kenny Rogers 's 2015–2017 tour are examples of farewell tours which were the last to be staged before their deaths. As of October 2024, the highest-grossing concert tour of all time
7812-431: The roof to other parts of the building (see nonimaging optics ). Optical-fiber lamps are used for illumination in decorative applications, including signs , art , toys and artificial Christmas trees . Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-transmitting concrete building product LiTraCon . Optical fiber can also be used in structural health monitoring . This type of sensor can detect stresses that may have
7905-568: The speed of manufacture to over 50 meters per second, making optical fiber cables cheaper than traditional copper ones. These innovations ushered in the era of optical fiber telecommunication. The Italian research center CSELT worked with Corning to develop practical optical fiber cables, resulting in the first metropolitan fiber optic cable being deployed in Turin in 1977. CSELT also developed an early technique for splicing optical fibers, called Springroove. Attenuation in modern optical cables
7998-520: The stage, sound equipment, instruments, props, and clothes. When Beyoncé visited the United Kingdom with her 2016 The Formation World Tour , it took seven Boeing 747 air freighters and a fleet of more than 70 trucks to get her stage set and other gear to the venues. The logistics phase of that tour did not include transportation of the backstage staff, musicians, performers, and the singer herself. The majority of concert tours are part of
8091-405: The tour, but is not intended to represent the majority of performances. The following set list was performed during the second leg of the tour, but is not intended to represent the majority of performances. Concert tour Different segments of longer concert tours are known as "legs". The different legs of a tour are denoted in different ways, dependent on the artist and type of tour, but
8184-419: The tour. Sales of the drink in Japan doubled during the summer following the announcement, helped by an advertising campaign that offered free tickets and 30,000 souvenirs. The entire entourage were instructed not to be seen drinking a product from rival Coca-Cola in public. Marlon Brando 's son Miko joined the tour as a production assistant. Auditions for the musicians, and subsequent rehearsals, were held at
8277-499: The touring business suffered in the early 2020s because of the COVID-19 pandemic . Pollstar estimated the total lost revenue for the industry in 2020 at more than $ 30 billion. The mobility of concert tours requires a lot of costs, time, and energy. It is very common for musicians to not see family members for over a year during their touring. British singer Adele expressed her unhappiness of concert tours, saying "Touring
8370-480: Was broadcast on Nippon Television and is available on YouTube . A number of amateur-shot concerts and short snippets were leaked on YouTube a few years later. Half-show footage of Rome (May 23, 1988) and Brisbane (November 28, 1987), and a high-quality 30-minute segment of live footage of Tokyo (December 9, 1988), as well as full low-quality leaks of Tokyo (September 12 & 13, 1987) and Osaka (October 10, 1987) are also available online. Audio recordings of
8463-614: Was brought in to choreograph and co-direct the tour. On the final day, Jackson allowed 420 school pupils to watch him perform a full dress rehearsal after the children made him a rap music video in his honor. The band rehearsed " Speed Demon " from Bad prior to Jackson's arrival two weeks in, and he liked the performance, but it was dropped from the set as he had no choreography to accompany the song. Siegfried and Roy were brought in to advise on some stage illusions. The first performances were to begin in Atlanta , but Pepsi officials objected
8556-675: Was first achieved in 1970 by researchers Robert D. Maurer , Donald Keck , Peter C. Schultz , and Frank Zimar working for American glass maker Corning Glass Works . They demonstrated a fiber with 17 dB/km attenuation by doping silica glass with titanium . A few years later they produced a fiber with only 4 dB/km attenuation using germanium dioxide as the core dopant. In 1981, General Electric produced fused quartz ingots that could be drawn into strands 25 miles (40 km) long. Initially, high-quality optical fibers could only be manufactured at 2 meters per second. Chemical engineer Thomas Mensah joined Corning in 1983 and increased
8649-406: Was hired to take Phillinganes' place. During the run of shows in Tokyo, nine-year-old Ayana Takada was selected to receive a certificate by Jackson to commemorate the four millionth person to attend the tour. Five performances in Los Angeles were held to conclude the tour on January 27, 1989. Currell remembered a minor earthquake shook the stage as the band were taking their final bow at the end of
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