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84-497: The older English term for a lavish meal was feast , and "banquet" originally meant a specific and different kind of meal, often following a feast, but in a different room or even building, which concentrated on sweet foods of various kinds . These became highly fashionable as sugar became much more common in Europe at the start of the 16th century. It was a grand form of the dessert course, and special banqueting houses , often on

168-586: A combine , or sugarcane harvester . The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco /  John Deere . The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest 100 long tons (100 t) each hour, but harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to

252-419: A genetic map developed for USDA ARS -run breeding programs for brown rust of sugarcane . Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus . Unlike legumes and other nitrogen-fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacteria, G. diazotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of

336-400: A banquet appear and disappear. Julia Reinhard Lupton interprets this scene as "a demonstration of the violation of humanist convivial ideals in courtly culture". Romeo and Juliet demonstrates the setting of a banquet in act 1, scene 5, and Capulet acts in a way that suggests it is not important. Critics state that banquet scenes such as these illustrate the divide between servants assembling

420-541: A choice. West Indian planters, therefore, needed new workers, and they found cheap labour in China and India. The people were subject to indenture , a long-established form of contract, which bound them to unfree labour for a fixed term. The conditions where the indentured servants worked were frequently abysmal, owing to a lack of care among the planters. The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836. The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to

504-564: A comfit, confectioners used a balancing pan to lay out the food being covered and subsequently coated it with gum arabic to prevent oils from disturbing the sugar coat. Finally, multiple layers of sugar syrup were applied and the comfits were dried in the sun. The final layers usually included a colourant such as saffron , beet juice, or spinach juice. The sugar syrup itself could also be flavoured or perfumed with musk , ambergris , rosewater, or other floral distillations. There were two main types of comfits: smooth and ragged. They differed in

588-543: A cone and filled with something sweet. They could be flavoured with orange flower water or coffee. A comfit was a spice, seed, or nut coated with sugar. One of the first confections, it originated in the Middle East as a medicine for indigestion and reached Europe through Italian merchants. It was the main specialty of confectioners in Renaissance England and was sold in apothecaries as well. To make

672-516: A country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, as in North America, sugarcanes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, as in the French island of Réunion , sugarcane is often harvested up to 10 years before replanting. Sugarcane

756-476: A food's nutritional value was determined by its taste and supposed effect on the body. Sugar, for example, was categorized as "hot and moist" – complementary to the human body. Ken Albala argues that this made sugar "a prime candidate for the miracle food category," being used extensively in feasts at court and praised for its medicinal value. The Renaissance apothecary was a shop that sold medicines and, at times, prescribed them. Medicines would be prepared with

840-514: A main ingredient in confections and preservatives became more popular in the early Renaissance. Noblewomen would engage in confectionery as a hobby, which partly gave rise to the tradition of banquets in England. Renaissance confectionery was heavily reliant on sugar. Colonization in the New World did not significantly affect the sugar trade until the mid-sixteenth century. Spanish colonies in

924-726: A mainly visual purpose, not always intended for consumption. Jumbals , "intricately knotted biscuits" of Italian origin, would be shaped into letters and used to spell out topics the host wanted to discuss. Contrast between sight and taste was an important feature of presentation. At times, confectioners would purposefully create foods to "fool" the diner. Recipe books from the period include how to make, for example, an imitation ham from sugar, berries, and flowers; artichokes and asparagus from marzipan; and "objects, such as coats of arms". Sweetmeats frequently served in banquets included fruits preserved in sugar syrup, marmalades, moulded fruit pastes, comfits, conserves, and biscuits. Quince marmalade

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1008-410: A perennial tropical grass , exhibits a unique growth pattern characterized by lateral shoots emerging at its base, leading to the development of multiple stems. These stems typically attain a height of 3 to 4 meters (approximately 10 to 13 feet) and possess a diameter of about 5 centimeters (approximately 2 inches). As these stems mature, they evolve into cane stalks, constituting a substantial portion of

1092-460: A process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60% solids by weight. The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide , which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate . The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to

1176-864: A significant number of ethnic Indians, Southeast Asians, and Chinese people settling in various parts of the world. In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 and 50% of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji , South Africa , Myanmar , Sri Lanka , Malaysia , Indonesia , the Philippines , Guyana , Jamaica, Trinidad , Martinique, French Guiana , Guadeloupe, Grenada , St. Lucia , St. Vincent , St. Kitts , St. Croix , Suriname, Nevis , and Mauritius . Between 1863 and 1900, merchants and plantation owners in Queensland and New South Wales (now part of

1260-491: A sweetener. It became more widely used after Arabs and Persians developed the process that produces refined sugar . Italian traders were instrumental in the trade of sugar and other confections from the Middle East to Europe, especially in the Middle Ages. Venice was a particularly important trading hub, very dominant in the diffusion of Arabic sugar skills and medicine. Sugar became more common in Europe starting in

1344-428: A tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 60 cm (24 in) of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom . It is a C 4 plant , able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into biomass . In primary growing regions across the tropics and subtropics , sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m of cane. Sugar cane accounted for around 21% of

1428-1037: A virus vector, which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt . Sesamia grisescens is a major pest in Papua New Guinea and so is a serious concern for the Australian industry were it to cross over. To head off such a problem, the Federal Government has pre-announced that they would cover 80% of response costs if it were necessary. Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by Candidatus Phytoplasma sacchari , whiptail disease or sugarcane smut , pokkah boeng caused by Fusarium moniliforme , Xanthomonas axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming Disease, and red rot disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum . Viral diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus , maize streak virus , and sugarcane yellow leaf virus. Yang et al. , 2017 provides

1512-438: Is 99% sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugarcane-producing tropics increases demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining. Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake. Bagasse , the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted,

1596-464: Is a species of tall, perennial grass (in the genus Saccharum , tribe Andropogoneae ) that is used for sugar production . The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalks that are rich in sucrose , which accumulates in the stalk internodes . Sugarcanes belong to the grass family, Poaceae , an economically important flowering plant family that includes maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum , and many forage crops. It

1680-463: Is a sugar-based confection made by boiling sugar and water, either served alone or with candied fruits or other flavourings. Syrups as a fruit preservative gained popularity with the lower classes once the price of sugar dropped in the late sixteenth century. Before this, upper-class women made it at home. The use of syrup as a preservative originated in Arabic countries; England was exposed to it through

1764-561: Is a term that encompasses a wide range of confections prepared with sugar. Quince was a versatile and popular fruit in the Renaissance. It was used for medicinal preparations and eaten preserved, jellied, and as the main ingredient in marmalades. Marmalade in the Renaissance was a quince paste cooked in sugar, sometimes enhanced with rosewater, spices, perfumes such as musk , and fruit juices. It would be set in decorative moulds and could be served with comfits placed on top. Syrup

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1848-846: Is closely linked to the migrations of the Austronesian peoples . Saccharum barberi was only cultivated in India after the introduction of S. officinarum . S. officinarum was first domesticated in New Guinea and the islands east of the Wallace Line by Papuans, where it is the modern center of diversity . Beginning around 6,000 BP , several strains were selectively bred from the native Saccharum robustum . From New Guinea, it spread westwards to Maritime Southeast Asia after contact with Austronesians, where it hybridized with Saccharum spontaneum . The second domestication center

1932-650: Is common for a banquet to be organized at the end of academic conferences. The State Council of the People's Republic of China levied a tax on banquets on September 2, 1988, at a tax rate calculated per occasion between 15% and 20% of the banquet's value. Confectionery in the English Renaissance Confections of the English Renaissance span a wide range of products. All were heavily based on sugar , which

2016-416: Is common. Billets (stalks or stalk sections) harvested by a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, called ratoons . Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In

2100-587: Is eaten raw, steamed, or toasted, and prepared in various ways in Southeast Asia, such as certain island communities of Indonesia as well as in Oceanic countries like Fiji . The direct use of sugar cane to produce ethanol for biofuel is projected to potentially surpass the production of white sugar as an end product. The term sugarcane is a combination of two words: "sugar" and "cane". The former ultimately derives from Sanskrit शर्करा ( śárkarā ) as

2184-498: Is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns up dry leaves, and chases away or kills venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level using cane knives or machetes . A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg (1,100 lb) of sugarcane per hour. Mechanical harvesting uses

2268-429: Is native to the warm temperate and tropical regions of India, Southeast Asia, and New Guinea . Sugarcane was an ancient crop of the Austronesian and Papuan people . The best evidence available today points to the New Guinea area as the site of the original domestication of Saccharum officinarum . It was introduced to Polynesia , Island Melanesia , and Madagascar in prehistoric times via Austronesian sailors. It

2352-418: Is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, and is used to produce ethanol, rum, and citric acid . Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended with maple syrup , invert sugars, or corn syrup . Both forms of molasses are used in baking. Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in

2436-455: Is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules and to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation. Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which

2520-728: Is southern China and Taiwan, where S. sinense was a primary cultigen of the Austronesian peoples. Words for sugarcane are reconstructed as *təbuS or *CebuS in Proto-Austronesian , which became *tebuh in Proto-Malayo-Polynesian . It was one of the original major crops of the Austronesian peoples from at least 5,500 BP. Introduction of the sweeter S. officinarum may have gradually replaced it throughout its cultivated range in maritime Southeast Asia. From Insular Southeast Asia, S. officinarum

2604-559: Is today, rather than as medicine. Before the Renaissance era, confections typically consisted of exotic imports from the Mediterranean and the Middle East such as almonds, citrus fruits, rosewater , spices, and sometimes, sugar. The exclusivity and high cost of ingredients made confectionery a respected trade. While sugarcane had been known in Europe since Roman times, it had previously been dismissed in favor of honey as

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2688-409: Is used for several purposes: The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax . Molasses is produced in two forms: blackstrap , which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purer molasses syrup. Blackstrap molasses

2772-644: The Canaries and Portuguese colonies in the Azores , Madeira , and São Tomé were the first to use slaves to produce sugar. The West Indies soon proved to be more conducive to sugarcane production and colonizing countries sent Africans as slaves to work on sugarcane plantations there from the early sixteenth century. The Atlantic slave trade fuelled sugar production and imports into England and continued for centuries until its abolition in 1807. Voyages were deadly due to torturous conditions on ships, and plantation work

2856-692: The Canary Islands , and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands . An article on sugarcane cultivation in Spain is included in Ibn al-'Awwam 's 12th-century Book on Agriculture . In colonial times, sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and African slaves . Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to

2940-858: The Caribbean (and the New World ) during his second voyage to the Americas, initially to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic ). The first sugar harvest happened in Hispaniola in 1501; many sugar mills were constructed in Cuba and Jamaica by the 1520s. The Portuguese introduced sugarcane to Brazil . By 1540, there were 800 cane sugar mills in Santa Catarina Island and another 2,000 on

3024-681: The Last Supper , the Manchu Han Imperial Feast , and mead halls . A luau is one variety of traditional banquet originally used in Hawaii. Many cultures have developed structures for banquets. In the European Middle Ages , comprehensive ritualised elements were involved in a traditional three-course menu, having up to 25 dishes in each course (this structure persisted into the 19th century). The structure

3108-735: The Natal region of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crops are found up to 1,600 m or 5,200 ft close to the equator in countries such as Colombia , Ecuador , and Peru . Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile, well-drained mollisols , through heavy cracking vertisols , infertile acid oxisols and ultisols , peaty histosols , to rocky andisols . Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of

3192-527: The turnip moth , the sugarcane borer ( Diatraea saccharalis ), the African sugarcane borer ( Eldana saccharina ), the Mexican rice borer ( Eoreuma loftini ), the African armyworm ( Spodoptera exempta ), leafcutter ants , termites , spittlebugs (especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta ), and Migdolus fryanus (a beetle ). The planthopper insect Eumetopina flavipes acts as

3276-441: The 1420s, after Portuguese colonies began to cultivate sugarcane and overtook imports from the Middle East. The price of sugar dropped significantly after New World imports began to dominate the market in the mid-sixteenth century. This allowed for the increased production of sweetmeats as desserts, and the confectioner could expand his market to people beyond the upper classes. Originally associated with medicine, sugar's role as

3360-492: The Caribbean, South American, Indian Ocean, and Pacific island nations. The need for sugar crop laborers became a major driver of large migrations, some people voluntarily accepting indentured servitude and others forcibly imported as slaves . Grown in tropical and subtropical regions, sugarcane is the world's largest crop by production quantity, totalling 1.9 billion tonnes in 2020, with Brazil accounting for 40% of

3444-626: The Commonwealth of Australia) brought between 55,000 and 62,500 people from the South Pacific islands to work on sugarcane plantations. An estimated one-third of these workers were coerced or kidnapped into slavery (known as blackbirding ); many others were paid very low wages. Between 1904 and 1908, most of the 10,000 remaining workers were deported in an effort to keep Australia racially homogeneous and protect white workers from cheap foreign labour. Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane

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3528-682: The Middle East and were touted as cough cures. Similarly, conserves of flowers and herbs were used to treat numerous ailments. Simple quince marmalade was often used as a base for medicinal preparations. One such medicine for "Diseases of the Head" that was considered to cure maladies ranging from fits to epilepsy was called Marmelada Cephalica. Besides quince, it consisted of salt of a man's skull, amber, and mace . Caraway and aniseed comfits, quince marmalades, spiced waters, and cordials were also consumed post-banquet to soothe indigestion in guests who had likely overeaten. Medicines were not only prepared in

3612-428: The Middle East as a remedy for cough and fever, and English apothecaries frequently sold these as alphenics (the precursors to modern cough drops). Cordial waters, adapted into dessert-like refreshments after the Renaissance, were alcoholic infusions considered as medicine for a wide range of maladies. Sweet foods were frequently prescribed for chest ailments. Floral sugars, flavoured with violets and roses, originated in

3696-409: The anatomy of the stomach and in the digestive mechanism. When lying on the left, the food has room to expand because the curvature of the stomach is enhanced in that position. Contemporary banquets serve many new purposes in addition to their traditional purposes. These can include anything from during workplace training sessions and formal business dinners to birthday parties and social gatherings. It

3780-427: The apothecary. A number of recipe books existed for household use, mainly by upper class ladies. One common domestic preparation was syrup. In a medicinal context, syrups were used to concentrate the perceived healing properties of a particular food, make bitter medicines more palatable, and as a carrier for other healing substances. Syrups could be based on a variety of flowers, fruits, spices, and herbs. Their main usage

3864-829: The approach to crop management embraced in the cultivation of sugarcane. Ultimately, the successful cultivation of this valuable crop demands a thoughtful integration of various factors to optimize its growth and productivity. Sugarcane is a cash crop , but it is also used as livestock fodder. Sugarcane genome is one of the most complex plant genomes known, mostly due to interspecific hybridization and polyploidization. The two centers of domestication for sugarcane are one for Saccharum officinarum by Papuans in New Guinea and another for Saccharum sinense by Austronesians in Taiwan and southern China. Papuans and Austronesians originally primarily used sugarcane as food for domesticated pigs. The spread of both S. officinarum and S. sinense

3948-463: The banquet and nobility who feast at it. John Webster 's The Duchess of Malfi includes a scene where the title character's last words are "giv'st my little boy/ Some syrup for his cold". This has been interpreted as a transition from a "disobedient wife" to a "tender mother". Wendy Wall focuses on syrup as a domestic symbol and relates it to noblewomen's common practice of making household medicines. Sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane

4032-445: The cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside its harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting does not require

4116-429: The carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar . As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging. Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar . When no more sugar can be economically recovered,

4200-609: The crop originated in Southeast Asia. As sugar was traded and spread West, this became سُكَّر ( sukkar ) in Arabic , zúcchero in Italian , zuccarum in Latin , and eventually sucre in both Middle French and Middle English . The second term "cane" began to be used alongside it as the crop was grown on plantations in the Caribbean . G anna is the Hindi word for sugarcane. Sugarcane,

4284-631: The density of sugar syrup that coated them, and thus had different textures. Long comfits, slivers of cinnamon and orange, were used extensively for decoration. The most popular comfits were coated caraway seeds , aniseed , fennel seeds, coriander seeds, and almonds. Sugar was originally introduced to Europe as a preservative and a medicine. European apothecaries adopted many of their practices from Arabic physicians. Renaissance medicine partly relied on diet. Dieticians recommended consuming sugar to prevent adverse effects believed to arise from other foods. Certain properties were assigned to food, and

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4368-585: The eighth century, Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from medieval India to the other parts of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia , Egypt , North Africa, and Andalusia . By the 10th century, sources state that every village in Mesopotamia grew sugarcane. It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in

4452-442: The entire plant, accounting for roughly 75% of its composition. A fully mature cane stalk generally comprises a composition of around 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugar carbohydrates, and 63–73% water content. The successful cultivation of sugarcane hinges on a delicate interplay of several factors, including climatic conditions, soil properties, irrigation methods, fertilization practices, pest and disease management,

4536-419: The field to be set on fire; the residue left in the field by the machine consists of cane tops and dead leaves, which serve as mulch for the next planting. The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled with imidacloprid (Confidor) or chlorpyrifos (Lorsban). Other important pests are the larvae of some butterfly/moth species, including

4620-491: The final molasses still contains 20–30% sucrose and 15–25% glucose and fructose. To produce granulated sugar , in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days. Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the Southern United States, as far north as coastal North Carolina . The juice

4704-562: The global crop production over the 2000–2021 period. The Americas was the leading region in the production of sugar cane (52% of the world total). Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation declined there during the late 20th century, and is primarily confined to small plantations in Florida , Louisiana , and southeast Texas in the 21st century. Sugarcane cultivation ceased in Hawaii when

4788-422: The highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions. Sugarcane consumes 9% of the world's potash fertilizer production. Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method. Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries, such as the United States and Australia, billet planting

4872-512: The household. Their name means "twice-cooked", alluding to the method of baking that gives them a crispy crust. Another method of preparation was to boil the dough in a sugar syrup, resulting in a different texture. Biscuits would be made into a variety of shapes, such as letters and knots, and frequently served at court. Marchpane , made from almond paste , rosewater, and powdered sugar, was easily moulded into any form. Wafers were made by cooking batter between patterned irons and could be rolled into

4956-450: The import of preserved citrus fruits. Conserves were made "by pounding fresh herbs, flowers or fruits with sugar to form a thick, sticky mass." They were most often made with aromatic flowers and could be enhanced with medicinal ingredients. Some popular examples include the conserves of red roses, marigolds , violets , chicory , rosemary, lavender, barberries, apricots, and oranges. Biscuits were present both at court banquets and in

5040-490: The last operating sugar plantation in the state shut down in 2016. Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water for a continuous period of more than 6–7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between 22°N and 22°S , and some up to 33°N and 33°S . When sugarcane crops are found outside this range, such as

5124-497: The medieval "void": a post-dinner course where small treats were served after the table had been cleared, or "voided". Additionally, it was also influenced by the Italian collazione , or "sugar collation", a luxurious presentation of sweetmeats and sugar sculptures. A banquet was a performance as well as a meal. It originated in court in the early 1500s and quickly became a status symbol among English nobility, often being served in

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5208-611: The model of the four humours in mind. Apothecaries would often take an individualized approach, making personalized medicines. The apothecary was the main purveyor of sugar-based concoctions until the confectioner began to sell sugar as a food instead of a medicine in the later Renaissance. Some typical products were syrups, preserves of herbs and roots, floral sugars, lozenges , and comfits. Sugar would be used to preserve and flavour otherwise unpalatable medicines and to make carrier substances for medicines, such as enhanced marmalades. Sticks of pulled sugar called al fänäd were used in

5292-442: The north coast of Brazil, Demarara , and Suriname . Sugar, often in the form of molasses, was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to make rum . The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from

5376-502: The presence of important guests. Confectioners and hosts would put great effort into decoration and presentation. Purees of fruits such as apricots, citrus fruits, cherries, and gooseberries would be boiled with sugar and poured into intricate moulds. Once set, confectioners would create knots, words, or artificial fruits from the stiff marmalade to use as decoration. Sugar syrups would be solidified into sculptures, sometimes representing historical or mythological figures. These would serve

5460-450: The removal of organic and nutrient-rich material, which can decrease future crop yields. It can also result in sediments and other pollutants being washed into aquatic habitats, which can result in a wide range of environmental issues, including eutrophication and acidification. Sugarcane cultivation can also result in soil compaction, which is caused by the use of heavy, infield machinery. Along with impacting invertebrate and fauna within

5544-483: The removal of soil at harvest, as well as improper irrigation practices, which can result in erosion. Erosion is especially significant when the sugarcane is grown on slopes or hillsides, which increases the rate of water runoff. Generally, it is recommended that sugarcane is not planted in areas with a slope greater than 8%. However, in certain areas, such as parts of the Caribbean and South Africa, slopes greater than 20% have been planted. Increased erosion can lead to

5628-452: The roof or in the grounds of large houses, were built for them. Such meals are also called a "sugar collation". Banquets feature luxury foods, often including animal meat. Feasts can be divided into two fundamental types: solidarity (or alliance, or empowering) and promotional (or aggrandisive, competitive, or diacritical). Solidarity feasts are a joint effort in which families or communities bring equivalent contributions together to reinforce

5712-509: The sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe. Toil in the sugar plantations became a main basis for a vast network of forced population movement , supplying people to work under brutal coercion. The passage of the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act led to the abolition of slavery through most of the British Empire , and many of the emancipated slaves no longer worked on sugarcane plantations when they had

5796-420: The selection of specific varieties, and the timing of the harvest. In terms of yield, the average production of cane stalk stands at 60–70 tonnes per hectare (equivalent to 24–28 long tons per acre or 27–31 short tons per acre) annually. However, this yield figure is not fixed and can vary significantly, ranging from 30 to 180 tonnes per hectare. This variance is contingent upon the level of knowledge applied and

5880-562: The social ties of all concerned. Promotional feasts are intended to enhance the social status of the host, who provides the food in order to create obligations to themselves among the guests. Communal feasting is evidenced from the early Neolithic in Britain. In Ancient Greece , symposia formed a routine part of life, involving the celebratory drinking of wine, conversation and performances of poetry and music. Notable historical and legendary examples of banquets include Belshazzar's Feast ,

5964-555: The sugarcane's stem. Coating seeds with the bacteria was assayed in 2006 with the intention of enabling crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use. At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease in Central America in the past two decades, most of them sugarcane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake. Additionally, some of

6048-489: The top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is " carbonatation ", which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate. After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon . Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role. Some remaining color-forming impurities are adsorbed by

6132-414: The workers are being exposed to hazards such as: high temperatures, harmful pesticides, and poisonous or venomous animals. This occurs during the process of cutting the sugarcane manually, causing physical ailments due to constant repetitive movements for hours every work day. Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white" sugar

6216-517: The world total. Sugarcane accounts for 79% of sugar produced globally (most of the rest is made from sugar beets ). About 70% of the sugar produced comes from Saccharum officinarum and its hybrids. All sugarcane species can interbreed , and the major commercial cultivars are complex hybrids . White sugar is produced from sugarcane in specialized mill factories. Sugarcane reeds are used to make pens, mats, screens, and thatch. The young, unexpanded flower head of Saccharum edule ( duruka )

6300-564: Was 74 tonnes per hectare, led by Peru with 121 tonnes per hectare. The theoretical possible yield for sugarcane is about 280 tonnes per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 tonnes of cane per hectare. From 2008 to 2016, production of standards-compliant sugarcane experienced a compound annual growth rate of about 52%, while conventional sugarcane increased at less than 1%. The cultivation of sugarcane can lead to increased soil loss through

6384-475: Was a common feature of Elizabethan-era banquets, served in tandem with other preserves. A common practice after a meal would be to "seal" or placate the stomach with quince marmalade. Comfits and cordial waters served a similar purpose, which were consumed to counteract the effects of eating too much. Banquets often appear in Shakespeare's plays. In The Tempest , Ariel taunts shipwrecked sailors by making

6468-442: Was a relatively new development. Many were considered to have medicinal properties – a belief that was influenced by the Arabic use of sugar as a medicine and that carried over from medieval sugar usage . In the mid-sixteenth century, sugar became cheaper and more widely available to the general populace due to European colonization of the New World . It began to be used more as a flavouring , preservative , and sweetener , as it

6552-440: Was also introduced to southern China and India by Austronesian traders around 1200 to 1000 BC. The Persians and Greeks encountered the famous "reeds that produce honey without bees" in India between the sixth and fourth centuries BC. They adopted and then spread sugarcane agriculture. Merchants began to trade in sugar, which was considered a luxurious and expensive spice, from India. In the 18th century, sugarcane plantations began in

6636-680: Was exported to the USSR , where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry. Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Cuba, Guyana, Belize , Barbados , and Haiti, along with the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands. About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from S. officinarum and hybrids using this species. Sugarcane cultivation requires

6720-558: Was extracted with horse- or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, like maple syrup , in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener. It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product. In 2022, global production of sugarcane was 1.92 billion tonnes, with Brazil producing 38% of the world total, India with 23%, and China producing 5% (table). Worldwide, 26 million hectares were devoted to sugarcane cultivation in 2020. The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2022

6804-424: Was laborious and slaves would often perish from the physical stress. Planting sugarcane involved digging pits in a way that plows could not, then harvesting it and crushing it in sugar mills to produce sugar. Additionally, the crop itself was more labour-intensive that other cash crops such as cotton . The sugar slave trade is considered to be the first occurrence of mass slavery since Roman times. " Sweetmeats "

6888-574: Was later altered to two courses, with the pre-existing third course changed to the serving of fruit and nuts. Banqueting rooms varied greatly with location, but tended to be on an intimate scale, either in a garden room, banquet hall or inside such as the small banqueting turrets in Longleat House . Art historians have often noted that banqueters on iconographic records of ancient Mediterranean societies almost always appear to be lying down on their left sides. One possible explanation could lie in

6972-603: Was spread eastward into Polynesia and Micronesia by Austronesian voyagers as a canoe plant by around 3,500 BP. It was also spread westward and northward by around 3,000 BP to China and India by Austronesian traders, where it further hybridized with S. sinense and S. barberi . From there, it spread further into western Eurasia and the Mediterranean . The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts. Around

7056-416: Was to "soothe an inflamed organ" and invigorate weakened people, but different syrups focused on different maladies. The two most common syrups were made of violets , for lowering a fever, and roses, for taming the temper. The English sweet banquet was an early form of the modern dessert course, consisting of sweet confections, spiced drinks, and complex sugar work served after the main meal. It evolved from

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