Germplasm refers to genetic resources such as seeds, tissues, and DNA sequences that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding , conservation efforts, agriculture, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks , trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks . Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity, food security, and conservation efforts.
47-617: A bean is the seed of any plant in the legume family ( Fabaceae ) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying , but fresh beans are also sold. Most beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, but they can be cooked in many different ways, including frying and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes throughout the world. The unripe seedpods of some varieties are also eaten whole as green beans or edamame (immature soybean ), but fully ripened beans contain toxins like phytohemagglutinin and require cooking. The word 'bean', for
94-482: A biodiversity crisis event that is caused by human activities and industrialization. Many plants and animals have gone extinct due to losing their habitat, their habitat being degraded with contaminants, and climate change . Germplasm resources are a way to conserve the pre-existing biological diversity and to possibly regenerate habitats. By storing this genetic information there is data about what species are present including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi and what
141-580: A Swiss village that are believed to date back to the Stone Age . Archaeological evidence suggests that these peas must have been grown in the eastern Mediterranean and Mesopotamian regions at least 5,000 years ago and in Britain as early as the 11th century. The soybean was domesticated around 5,000 years ago in China from a descendant of the wild vine Glycine soja. The oldest-known domesticated beans in
188-514: A botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides. Most legumes have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules . Some of the fixed nitrogen becomes available to later crops, so legumes play a key role in crop rotation . The term pulse , as used by the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
235-413: A diet of perennial grasses. Factors include larger consumption, faster digestion, and higher feed conversion rate . The type of crop grown for animal rearing depends on the farming system. In cattle rearing, legume trees such as Gliricidia sepium can be planted along edges of fields to provide shade for cattle, the leaves and bark are often eaten by cattle. Green manure can be grown between harvesting
282-447: A food of the poor, as small farmers ate grains, vegetables, and got their protein from beans, while the wealthier classes were able to afford meat. European society has what Ken Albala calls "a class-based antagonism" to beans. Different cultures agree in disliking the flatulence that beans cause, and possess their own seasonings to attempt to remedy it: Mexico uses the herb epazote ; India the aromatic resin asafoetida ; Germany applies
329-465: A plant-based protein source in the world marketplace. Products containing legumes grew by 39% in Europe between 2013 and 2017. There is a common misconception that adding salt before cooking prevents them from cooking through. Legumes may not soften because they are old, or because of hard water or acidic ingredients in the pot; salting before cooking results in better seasoning . Legumes are
376-1557: A serious pest to broad beans and other beans. Common hosts for this pest are fathen, thistle and dock. Pea weevil and bean weevil damage leaf margins leaving characteristics semi-circular notches. Stem nematodes are very widespread but will be found more frequently in areas where host plants are grown. Common legume diseases include anthracnose , caused by Colletotrichum trifolii ; common leaf spot caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae ; crown wart caused by Physoderma alfalfae ; downy mildew caused by Peronospora trifoliorum ; fusarium root rot caused by Fusarium spp.; rust caused by Uromyces striatus ; sclerotina crown and stem rot caused by Sclerotinia trifoliorum ; Southern blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii ; pythium (browning) root rot caused by Pythium spp.; fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum ; root knot caused by Meloidogyne hapla . These are all classified as biotic problems. Abiotic problems include nutrient deficiencies, (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, copper, magnesium, manganese, boron, zinc), pollutants (air, water, soil, pesticide injury, fertilizer burn), toxic concentration of minerals, and unfavorable growth conditions. Seed viability decreases with longer storage time. Studies done on vetch , broad beans , and peas show that they last about 5 years in storage. Environmental factors that are important in influencing germination are relative humidity and temperature. Two rules apply to moisture content between 5 and 14 percent:
423-969: A significant source of protein , dietary fibre , carbohydrates , and dietary minerals ; for example, a 100 gram serving of cooked chickpeas contains 18 percent of the Daily Value (DV) for protein, 30 percent DV for dietary fiber, 43 percent DV for folate and 52 percent DV for manganese . Legumes are an excellent source of resistant starch ; this is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate ) used by intestinal cells for food energy . Forage legumes are of two broad types. Some, like alfalfa , clover , vetch ( Vicia ), stylo ( Stylosanthes ), or Arachis , are sown in pasture and grazed by livestock. Others, such as Leucaena or Albizia , are woody shrubs or trees that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide fodder. Legume-based feeds improve animal performance over
470-554: A small number of the most productive varieties. Efforts are being made to conserve the germplasm of older varieties in different countries. As of 2023, the Norwegian Svalbard Global Seed Vault holds more than 40,000 accessions of Phaseolus bean species. Unlike the closely related pea , beans are a summer crop that needs warm temperatures to grow. Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation and hence need less fertiliser than most plants. Maturity
517-477: A staple for human civilizations and plant breeding has allowed more genetic diversity and a more diverse gene pool. Germplasm resources allow for more genetic assets to be used and integrated for agricultural systems for plant breeding and bringing about new varieties. In addition, researchers are looking at crop wild relatives (CWRs) that could expand gene pools of crop species and provide more ability to select target traits. Furthermore, we are currently facing
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#1732772228390564-462: Is a segment of a seed pod occupied by the larva of the moth Cydia saltitans , and sold as a novelty. The pods, of the woody plant Sebastiania pavoniana (in the spurge family), start to jump when warmed in the palm of the hand. Scientists have suggested that the random walk that results may help the larva to find shade and so to survive on hot days. Legume Legumes ( / ˈ l ɛ ɡ j uː m , l ə ˈ ɡ j uː m / ) are plants in
611-679: Is a summary of FAO data. The world leader in production of dry beans ( Phaseolus spp), is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil. In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania. Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful, flavourless toxin: the lectin phytohaemagglutinin , which must be destroyed by cooking. Red kidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks of food poisoning . Even small quantities (4 or 5 raw beans) may cause severe stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea. This risk does not apply to canned beans because they have already been cooked. A recommended method
658-548: Is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available. In the case of the UK National Poisons Information Service , available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged as of 2008. Fermentation is used in some parts of Africa to improve the nutritional value of beans by removing toxins. Inexpensive fermentation improves
705-428: Is reserved for legume crops harvested solely for the dry seed. This excludes green beans and green peas , which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are mainly grown for oil extraction ( oilseeds like soybeans and peanuts ), and seeds which are used exclusively for sowing forage ( clovers , alfalfa ). However, in common usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made, and many of
752-419: Is the process of storing germplasm at very low temperatures, such as liquid nitrogen. This process ensures that cells do not degrade and keeps the germplasm intact. In addition, resources can be stored in situ such as the natural area the species was found. About 10,000 years ago is when humans began to domesticate plant species for the purpose of food, seeds, and vegetation. Since then, agriculture has been
799-448: Is their versatility, often assuming multiple roles concurrently. The extent of these roles is contingent upon the stage of maturity at which they are harvested. Grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds, for humans and animals to eat, or for oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include beans , lentils , lupins , peas , and peanuts . Legumes are a key ingredient in vegan meat and dairy substitutes . They are growing in use as
846-418: Is therefore a necessary ingredient in the production of proteins. Hence, legumes are among the best sources of plant protein. When a legume plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest , all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate ( NO − 3 ), making
893-468: Is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; under-cooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans. Cooking beans, without bringing them to a boil, in a slow cooker at a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins. A case of poisoning by butter beans used to make falafel was reported; the beans were used instead of traditional broad beans or chickpeas , soaked and ground without boiling, made into patties, and shallow fried . Bean poisoning
940-587: Is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest. As the pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. Many beans are vines needing external support, such as "bean cages" or poles. Native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, the tall stalks acting as support for the beans. More recently, the commercial "bush bean" which does not require support and produces all its pods simultaneously has been developed. The production data for legumes are published by FAO in three categories: The following
987-609: The Bahamas , and saw them growing in fields. Five kinds of Phaseolus beans were domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples, selecting pods that did not open and scatter their seeds when ripe: common beans ( P. vulgaris ) grown from Chile to the northern part of the United States; lima and sieva beans ( P. lunatus ); and the less widely distributed teparies ( P. acutifolius ), scarlet runner beans ( P. coccineus ), and polyanthus beans. Pre-Columbian peoples as far north as
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#17327722283901034-759: The black locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia ), Kentucky coffeetree ( Gymnocladus dioicus ), Laburnum , and the woody climbing vine Wisteria , have poisonous elements. Neanderthals and early modern humans used wild pulses when cooking meals 70,000 to 40,000 years ago. Traces of pulse production have been found around the Ravi River ( Punjab ), the seat of the Indus Valley civilisation , from c. 3300 BC. Meanwhile, evidence of lentil cultivation has also been found in Egyptian pyramids and cuneiform recipes . Dry pea seeds have been discovered in
1081-405: The polyculture practice known as coconut-soybean intercropping . Grain legumes are grown in coconut ( Cocos nuficera ) groves in two ways: intercropping or as a cash crop. These are grown mainly for their protein, vegetable oil and ability to uphold soil fertility. However, continuous cropping after 3–4 years decrease grain yields significantly. A common pest of grain legumes that is noticed in
1128-561: The 85 most commonly grown crops. Many accessions held are international species, and NPGS distributes germplasm resources internationally. As genetic information moves largely online there is a transition in germplasm information from a physical location (seed banks, cryopreserving) to online platforms containing genetic sequences. In addition there are issues in the collection germplasm information and where they are shared. Historically some germplasm information had been collected in developing countries and then shared to researchers who then sell
1175-781: The Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave , an archaeological site in Peru , and dated to around the second millennium BCE. Genetic analyses of the common bean Phaseolus show that it originated in Mesoamerica , and subsequently spread southward, along with maize and squash, traditional companion crops. In the United States, the domesticated soybean was introduced in 1770 by Benjamin Franklin after he sent seeds to Philadelphia from France. The International Year of Pulses 2016
1222-617: The Atlantic seaboard grew beans in the " Three Sisters " method of companion planting . The beans were interplanted with maize and squash . Beans were cultivated across Chile in Pre-Hispanic times, likely as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago . Most beans are legumes, but from many different genera, native to different regions. The biodiversity of bean cultivars is threatened by modern plant breeding, which selects
1269-693: The Old World vegetable, existed in Old English , long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. With the Columbian exchange of domestic plants between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus , such as the common bean and the runner bean , and the related genus Vigna . The term has long been applied generally to seeds of similar form, such as Old World soybeans and lupins , and to
1316-537: The United States, germplasm resources are regulated by the National Genetic Resources Program (NGRP), created by the U.S. congress in 1990. In addition the web server The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) provides information about germplasms as they pertain to agriculture production. Specifically for plants, there is the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) which holds > 450,000 accessions with 10,000 species of
1363-470: The body. Phytic acid , present in beans, interferes with bone growth and interrupts vitamin D metabolism. Many beans, including broad beans, navy beans, kidney beans and soybeans, contain large sugar molecules, oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose ). A suitable oligosaccharide-cleaving enzyme is necessary to digest these. As the human digestive tract does not contain such enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are digested by bacteria in
1410-530: The dead in ancient Egypt . Not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean region , Iberia , and transalpine Europe. In the Iliad (8th century BCE), there is a passing mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor. The oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave , an archaeological site in Peru , and dated to around
1457-618: The donor country the original germplasm that they altered. There is a lack of compensation to the donor countries and this is an issue. Effective Germplasm work includes the collection, storage, analysis, documentation, and exchange of genetic information. This information can be stored as accessions , which is DNA sequence information, or live cells/tissues that can be preserved. However, only about 5% of current germplasm resources are living samples. For live cells/tissues, germplasm resources can be stored ex situ in seed banks , botanic gardens , or through cryopreservation . Cryopreservation
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1504-464: The family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses . Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, but also as livestock forage and silage , and as soil-enhancing green manure . Well-known legumes include beans , chickpeas , peanuts , lentils , lupins , mesquite , carob , tamarind , alfalfa , and clover . Legumes produce
1551-510: The food chain that would better use pulse-based proteins, further global production of pulses, better use crop rotations and address challenges in the global trade of pulses. Germplasm In the United States, germplasm resources are regulated by the National Genetic Resources Program (NGRP), created by the U.S. congress in 1990. In addition the web server The Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) provides information about germplasms as they pertain to agriculture production. In
1598-624: The fruits or seeds of unrelated plants such as coffee beans , vanilla beans , castor beans , and cocoa beans . Beans were among the first plants to be domesticated. Broad or fava beans are in their wild state the size of a small fingernail; they were first gathered in Afghanistan and the Himalayan foothills. An early cultivated form was grown in Thailand from the early seventh millennium BCE, predating ceramics. Beans were deposited with
1645-563: The herb savory ; in the Middle East, cumin ; and Japan the seaweed kombu . A substance for which there is evidence of effectiveness in reducing flatulence is the enzyme alpha-galactosidase ; extracted from the mould fungus Aspergillus niger , it breaks down glycolipids and glycoproteins . The reputation of beans for flatulence is the theme of a children's song " Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit ". The Mexican jumping bean
1692-539: The large intestine, producing gases such as methane, released as flatulence . Raw green beans are 90% water, 7% carbohydrates , 2% protein , and contain negligible fat . In a 100 grams (3.5 oz) reference serving, raw green beans supply 31 calories of food energy , and are a moderate source (10-19% of the Daily Value , DV) of vitamin C (15% DV) and vitamin B6 (11% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table). Beans have often been thought of as
1739-461: The life of the seed will last longer if the storage temperature is reduced by 5 degree Celsius. Secondly, the storage moisture content will decrease if temperature is reduced by 1 degree Celsius. Cultivated legumes encompass a diverse range of agricultural classifications, spanning forage , grain , flowering, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure, and timber categories. A notable characteristic of many commercially cultivated legume species
1786-432: The main crop and the planting of the next crop. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins , which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide. Industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively. Fallow or green manure legume species are cultivated to be tilled back into
1833-510: The nitrogen available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops. In many traditional and organic farming practices, crop rotation or polyculture involving legumes is common. By alternating between legumes and non-legumes, or by growing both together for part of the growing season, the field can receive a sufficient amount of nitrogenous compounds to produce a good result without adding nitrogenous fertilizer. Legumes are often used as green manure . Sri Lanka developed
1880-964: The nutritional impact of flour from dry beans and improves digestibility, according to research co-authored by Emire Shimelis, from the Food Engineering Program at Addis Ababa University. Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans , germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked. There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by salmonella , listeria , and Escherichia coli , of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked, some causing significant mortality. Many types of bean like kidney bean contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in
1927-430: The second millennium BCE. Genetic analyses of the common bean Phaseolus show that it originated in Mesoamerica , and subsequently spread southward, along with maize and squash, traditional companion crops. Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genus Phaseolus , which originated in the Americas. The first European to encounter them was Christopher Columbus , while exploring what may have been
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1974-467: The soil in order to exploit the high levels of captured atmospheric nitrogen found in the roots of most legumes. Numerous legumes farmed for this purpose include Leucaena , Cyamopsis , and Sesbania species. Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous Acacia species and Castanospermum australe . Some legume trees, like the honey locust ( Gleditsia ) can be used in agroforestry . Others, including
2021-452: The special ability of fixing nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N 2 ) into ammonia (NH 3 ). The chemical reaction is: Ammonia is converted to another form, ammonium ( NH + 4 ), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction: This arrangement means that the root nodules are sources of nitrogen for legumes, making them relatively rich in plant proteins . All proteins contain nitrogenous amino acids . Nitrogen
2068-507: The third-largest land plant family in terms of number of species, behind only the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae , with about 751 genera and some 19,000 known species, constituting about seven percent of flowering plant species. Many legumes contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within root nodules of their root systems (plants belonging to the genus Styphnolobium are one exception to this rule). These bacteria have
2115-410: The tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania are minuscule flies that belong to the family Agromyzidae , dubbed "bean flies". They are considered to be the most destructive. The host range of these flies is very wide amongst cultivated legumes. Infestation of plants starts from germination through to harvest, and they can destroy an entire crop in early stage. Black bean aphids are
2162-535: The varieties used for dried pulses are also used for green vegetables, with their beans in pods while young. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae , are leguminous but are usually not called legumes by farmers, who tend to restrict that term to food crops. The FAO recognizes 11 primary pulses, excluding green vegetable legumes (e.g. green peas) and legumes used mainly for oil extraction (e.g., soybeans and groundnuts) or used only as seed (e.g., clover and alfalfa). Legumes are widely distributed as
2209-709: Was declared by the Sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations was nominated to facilitate the implementation of the year in collaboration with governments, relevant organizations, non-governmental organizations and other relevant stakeholders. Its aim was to heighten public awareness of the nutritional benefits of pulses as part of sustainable food production aimed towards food security and nutrition . The year created an opportunity to encourage connections throughout
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