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49-540: The original Native American name for the river was the "Kittacuck" which meant "the great tidal river ." The "Kittacuck" used to be plentiful with salmon and lamprey in pre-colonial and colonial times. In English, the river is named after William Blackstone (original spelling William Blaxton ), who arrived in Weymouth, Massachusetts in 1623 and became the first European settler of present-day Boston in 1625. He relocated to Rhode Island in 1635 and built his home on

98-617: A " lumper " movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo–Aleut , Algonkin–Wakashan , Na-Dene , Penutian , Hokan – Siouan , and Aztec–Tanoan . Sapir's classification (or something derivative)

147-595: A commercial scale. Early industrialization was conducted by J. Pullar and Sons in Scotland. The first synthetic dye, mauve , was discovered serendipitously by William Henry Perkin in 1856. The discovery of mauveine started a surge in synthetic dyes and in organic chemistry in general. Other aniline dyes followed, such as fuchsine , safranine , and induline . Many thousands of synthetic dyes have since been prepared. The discovery of mauve also led to developments within immunology and chemotherapy . In 1863

196-439: A living body - administered by injection or other means (intravital staining) - as the latter is (for instance) subject to higher safety standards, and must typically be a chemical known to avoid causing adverse effects on any biochemistry (until cleared from the tissue), not just to the tissue being studied, or in the short term. The term "vital stain" is occasionally used interchangeably with both intravital and supravital stains,

245-406: A microscope). As the visibility is meant to allow study of the cells or tissues, it is usually important that the dye not have other effects on the structure or function of the tissue that might impair objective observation. A distinction is drawn between dyes that are meant to be used on cells that have been removed from the organism prior to study (supravital staining) and dyes that are used within

294-2276: A result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.   1. Adaizan   2. Algonquian   3. Athapascan   4. Attacapan   (= Atakapa )   5. Beothukan   (= Beothuk )   6. Caddoan   7. Chimakuan   8. Chimarikan   (= Chimariko )   9. Chimmesyan   (= Tsimshian ) 10. Chinookan 11. Chitimachan   (= Chitimacha ) 12. Chumashan 13. Coahuiltecan 14. Copehan   (= Wintuan ) 15. Costanoan 16. Eskimauan   (= Eskimoan ) 17. Esselenian   (= Esselen ) 18. Iroquoian 19. Kalapooian   (= Kalapuyan ) 20. Karankawan   (= Karankawa ) 21. Keresan 22. Kiowan   (= Kiowa ) 23. Kitunahan   (= Kutenai ) 24. Koluschan   (= Tlingit ) 25. Kulanapan   (= Pomoan ) 26. Kusan   (= Coosan ) 27. Lutuamian   (= Klamath-Modoc ) 28. Mariposan   (= Yokutsan ) 29. Moquelumnan   (= Miwokan ) 30. Muskhogean   (= Muskogean ) 31. Natchesan   (= Natchez ) 32. Palaihnihan 33. Piman   (= Uto-Aztecan ) 34. Pujunan   (= Maiduan ) 35. Quoratean   (= Karok ) 36. Salinan 37. Salishan 38. Sastean   (= Shastan ) 39. Shahaptian   (= Sahaptian ) 40. Shoshonean   (= Uto-Aztecan ) 41. Siouan   (= Siouan–Catawba ) 42. Skittagetan   (= Haida ) 43. Takilman   (= Takelma ) 44. Tañoan   (= Tanoan ) 45. Timuquanan   (= Timucua ) 46. Tonikan   (= Tunica ) 47. Tonkawan   (= Tonkawa ) 48. Uchean   (= Yuchi ) 49. Waiilatpuan   (= Cayuse  &  Molala ) 50. Wakashan 51. Washoan   (= Washo ) 52. Weitspekan   (= Yurok ) 53. Wishoskan   (= Wiyot ) 54. Yakonan   (= Siuslaw & Alsean ) 55. Yanan 56. Yukian 57. Yuman 58. Zuñian   (= Zuni ) Paul Rivet (1924) lists

343-750: A significant role in the ability to improve water quality in the Providence and Seekonk River system [into which the Blackstone discharges], and efforts to reduce their nitrogen inputs should be initiated as soon as possible." In September 2010, the Conservation Law Foundation , citing this report, filed a lawsuit claiming that the discharge permit issued to the UBWPAD by the Environmental Protection Agency

392-453: A total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of Tamaulipas , Mexico . Below is Edward Sapir 's (1929) famous Encyclopædia Britannica classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of

441-535: A week later. In some parts of Rhode Island and Massachusetts, these hurricanes resulted in a combined amount of more than 20 in (510 mm) of rain within a week. This led to the highest water mark on record for the Blackstone river in Woonsocket at 21.8 ft (6.6 m), a full 12.8 feet (3.9 m) above flood stage. The river, together with the Woonasquatucket River to the south,

490-540: Is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and may require a mordant to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. The majority of natural dyes are derived from non-animal sources such as roots, berries, bark, leaves, wood, fungi and lichens . However, due to large-scale demand and technological improvements, most dyes used in

539-559: Is added to the dye bath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber. Basic dyes are also used in the coloration of paper . Direct or substantive dyeing is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly alkaline dye bath, at or near boiling point , with the addition of either sodium chloride (NaCl) or sodium sulfate (Na 2 SO 4 ) or sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ). Direct dyes are used on cotton , paper, leather , wool, silk and nylon . They are also used as pH indicators and as biological stains . Laser dyes are used in

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588-1129: Is considered probably by many linguists: Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely: Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis Hokan: most promising proposals "Unlikely" to be Hokan: Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977). Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund . (Consensus conservative classification) Families Isolates Proposed stocks Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84), Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87), Daniel Garrison Brinton (1891), Paul Rivet (1924), John Alden Mason (1950), and Čestmír Loukotka (1968). Other classifications include those of Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (1940–45), Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984), and Jorge A. Suárez (1974). Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America. Dyes A dye

637-553: Is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations. Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split". (preliminary) Families Isolates Stocks The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico

686-965: Is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.) I. Eskimo–Aleut II. Algonkin–Wakashan III. Nadene IV. Penutian V. Hokan–Siouan VI. Aztec–Tanoan The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.  6. Penutian phylum  7. Aztec–Tanoan phylum  8. Keres  9. Yuki 10. Beothuk 11. Kutenai 12. Karankawa 13. Chimakuan 14. Salish 15. Wakashan 16. Timucua Chumashan , Comecrudan , and Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen

735-486: Is the food dye . Because food dyes are classed as food additives , they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by legislation . Many are azo dyes, although anthraquinone and triphenylmethane compounds are used for colors such as green and blue . Some naturally occurring dyes are also used. A number of other classes have also been established, including: By

784-463: Is used. The very fine particle size gives a large surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fiber. The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding. Azoic dyeing is a technique in which an insoluble Azo dye is produced directly onto or within the fiber. This is achieved by treating a fiber with both diazoic and coupling components . With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions

833-488: The Bureau of American Ethnology , published a classification of 58 " stocks " that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent. John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As

882-703: The Hartford Treaty of 1650. In 1790, Samuel Slater opened the first successful water-powered cotton mill in America: Slater Mill , at Pawtucket Falls . This mill was powered by the waters of the Blackstone River. Many other mills appeared along the Blackstone River over time, making it a significant American industrial location and contributing to the river becoming the main cause of the Narragansett Bay pollution by

931-571: The Republic of Georgia in a prehistoric cave dated to 36,000 BP . Archaeological evidence shows that, particularly in India and Phoenicia , dyeing has been widely carried out for over 5,000 years. Early dyes were obtained from animal , vegetable or mineral sources, with no to very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom , notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, only few of which are used on

980-568: The United States Environmental Protection Agency called the Blackstone "the most polluted river in the country with respect to toxic sediments." A 1990 Massachusetts Department of Public Health report said of the river: "...that the condition of the Blackstone River is offensive throughout its course, from Worcester to the state line at Blackstone. The condition of the stream is likely to grow worse until effective measures are completed for removing from

1029-560: The addition of salt to produce a lake pigment . Textile dyeing dates back to the Neolithic period. Throughout history, people have dyed their textiles using common, locally available materials. Scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world. Plant-based dyes such as woad , indigo , saffron , and madder were important trade goods in

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1078-646: The basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters." In 1983, EPA identified concerns with impairment of water quality in The Blackstone River and established the Peterson/Puritan Superfund Site Despite clean up efforts, the effects of industrial wastewater discharge into the river were long-lasting: in 1990,

1127-1375: The classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell . (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.) Families Languages 11. Straits of Fuca   (= Makah ) 12. Natches   (= Natchez ) 13. Wakash   (= Nootka ) 14. Salish   (= Salishan ) 15. Shoshonees   (= Shoshone ) 16. Atnahs   (= Shuswap ) 17. Kinai   (= Tanaina ) 18. Koulischen   (= Tlingit ) 19. Utchees   (= Yuchi ) Families Languages   1. Adai   2. Alsean   3. Apache   4. Arapaho   5. Atakapa   6. Caddoan, Northern   7. Caddoan, Southern   8. Cayuse - Molala   9. Chinookan 10. Chitimacha 11. Comanche 12. Haida 13. Kalapuyan 14. Kiowa 15. Klamath 16. Koasati - Alabama 17. Kootenai 18. Kutchin 19. Maricopa (Yuman) 20. Natchez 21. Palaihnihan 22. Plains Apache 23. Sahaptian 24. Salishan 25. Shasta 26. Shoshone 27. Tanaina 28. Tlingit 29. Tsimshian 30. Ute 31. Wakashan, Southern 32. Wichita 33. Yuchi John Wesley Powell , an explorer who served as director of

1176-506: The classifications do not correspond to these divisions. Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total). The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total). An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in

1225-763: The consequent flow of solid waste into the river prompted no-contact advisories for the Rhode Island portion of the river in 2022. Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas#North America This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the Indigenous languages of the Americas or Amerindian languages . The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however,

1274-410: The dyeing of cellulose acetate , and are water-insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder. Their main use is to dye polyester , but they can also be used to dye nylon, cellulose triacetate , and acrylic fibers. In some cases, a dyeing temperature of 130 °C (266 °F) is required, and a pressurized dyebath

1323-486: The economic development of the region, allowing for the efficient movement of raw materials and finished products. The Blackstone River has been significantly impacted by industrial activities and resulting pollution since the 18th century. Early industries discharged a variety of pollutants into the river, including dyes from textile mills , heavy metals and solvents from metal and woodworking industries. Metals are still being measured in sediments near and adjacent to

1372-513: The economies of Asia and Europe. Across Asia and Africa, patterned fabrics were produced using resist dyeing techniques to control the absorption of color in piece-dyed cloth. Dyes from the New World such as cochineal and logwood were brought to Europe by the Spanish treasure fleets, and the dyestuffs of Europe were carried by colonists to America. Dyed flax fibers have been found in

1421-398: The end of the 20th century. In August 1955, severe flooding on the Blackstone caused extensive damage to Woonsocket, Rhode Island . Whereas the river is usually 70 ft (21 m) wide, it swelled to over 1 mi (1.6 km) in width. The flooding of the Blackstone was the result of a succession of dam breaks, which were caused by rainfall from Hurricane Connie and Hurricane Diane

1470-500: The fabric in a solution of an organic compound, typically a nitrophenol derivative, and sulfide or polysulfide . The organic compound reacts with the sulfide source to form dark colors that adhere to the fabric. Sulfur Black 1, the largest selling dye by volume, does not have a well defined chemical structure. Some dyes commonly used in Staining: One other class that describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use,

1519-454: The fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and cationic groups in the fiber. Acid dyes are not substantive to cellulosic fibers. Most synthetic food colors fall in this category. Examples of acid dye are Alizarine Pure Blue B, Acid red 88 , etc. Basic dyes are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to acrylic fibers , but find some use for wool and silk. Usually acetic acid

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1568-448: The fiber substrate. The covalent bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX , Cibacron F , and Drimarene K , are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibers at home or in the art studio. Disperse dyes were originally developed for

1617-401: The forerunner to Bayer AG was formed in what became Wuppertal , Germany . In 1891, Paul Ehrlich discovered that certain cells or organisms took up certain dyes selectively. He then reasoned that a sufficiently large dose could be injected to kill pathogenic microorganisms, if the dye did not affect other cells. Ehrlich went on to use a compound to target syphilis , the first time a chemical

1666-559: The modern world are synthetically produced from substances such as petrochemicals. Some are extracted from insects and/or minerals . Synthetic dyes are produced from various chemicals. The great majority of dyes are obtained in this way because of their superior cost, optical properties (color), and resilience (fastness, mordancy). Both dyes and pigments are colored, because they absorb only some wavelengths of visible light . Dyes are usually soluble in some solvent, whereas pigments are insoluble. Some dyes can be rendered insoluble with

1715-718: The nature of their chromophore , dyes are divided into: Dyes produced by the textile, printing and paper industries are a source of pollution of rivers and waterways. An estimated 700,000 tons of dyestuffs are produced annually (1990 data). The disposal of that material has received much attention, using chemical and biological means. A "vital dye" or stain is a dye capable of penetrating living cells or tissues without causing immediate visible degenerative changes. Such dyes are useful in medical and pathological fields in order to selectively color certain structures (such as cells) in order to distinguish them from surrounding tissue and thus make them more visible for study (for instance, under

1764-474: The production of some lasers, optical media ( CD-R ), and camera sensors ( color filter array ). Mordant dyes require a mordant , which improves the fastness of the dye against water, light and perspiration . The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final color significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are

1813-844: The river becomes tidal and flows into the Seekonk River just north of Providence . Other tributaries join the Blackstone along the way, such as the West River and Mumford River in Uxbridge , Massachusetts; and the Branch River , in North Smithfield, Rhode Island . Along with the Providence River , the Blackstone river served as the north-eastern border of Dutch claims for New Netherland from Adriaen Block 's charting of Narragansett Bay in 1614 through

1862-635: The river much of the pollution which it now receives." Recent pollution can be partially traced to the Upper Blackstone Water Pollution Abatement District (UBWPAD), the wastewater treatment plant for Worcester, Massachusetts and surrounding communities, which discharges into the Blackstone. A 2005 report written by the Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management said, "... [the] UBWPAD, North Attleboro, and Attleboro WWTFs play

1911-676: The river, in what would become Cumberland . The river is formed in South-central Worcester, Massachusetts , by the confluence of the Middle River and Mill Brook. From there, it follows a rough southeast course past Worcester City and Northbridge. It then flows through Millbury , Sutton , Grafton , Northbridge , Uxbridge , Millville , and Blackstone . It continues into Rhode Island, flowing past Woonsocket , Cumberland , Lincoln , Central Falls , and Pawtucket , where it then reaches Pawtucket Falls . Following this,

1960-523: The river. The inaugural celebration of Earth Day , in 1970, increased public support for remediation projects. While environmental activists in the Blackstone River Valley were already organizing clean-up efforts locally, in 1971, a formalized plea for action was made to the then Governor of Rhode Island, Frank Licht . In December 1971, political support was pledged at the state level. The Blackstone River Watershed Association, which at

2009-532: The synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant potassium dichromate is applied as an after-treatment. It is important to note that many mordants, particularly those in the heavy metal category, can be hazardous to health and extreme care must be taken in using them. Vat dyes are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in alkaline liquor produces

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2058-462: The time was two years old, was designated to lead the effort. By April 1972, support among the public for cleaning the river increased. Additionally, the 1972 federal Clean Water Act (CWA) was passed by Congress , offering a framework for more protection of the water quality of The Blackstone River. While the CWA did not specifically mention The Blackstone River by name, it stated that the act "establishes

2107-404: The two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final color is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components. This method of dyeing cotton is declining in importance due to the toxic nature of the chemicals used. Sulfur dyes are inexpensive dyes used to dye cotton with dark colors. Dyeing is effected by heating

2156-408: The underlying concept in either case being that the cells examined are still alive. In a stricter sense, the term "vital staining" means the polar opposite of "supravital staining." If living cells absorb the stain during supravital staining, they exclude it during "vital staining"; for example, they color negatively while only dead cells color positively, and thus viability can be determined by counting

2205-565: The visible region (some examples are nitro , azo , quinoid groups) and an auxochrome which serves to deepen the color. This theory has been superseded by modern electronic structure theory which states that the color in dyes is due to excitation of valence π-electrons by visible light. Dyes are classified according to their solubility and chemical properties. Acid dyes are water - soluble anionic dyes that are applied to fibers such as silk , wool , nylon and modified acrylic fibers using neutral to acid dye baths. Attachment to

2254-412: The water-soluble alkali metal salt of the dye. This form is often colorless, in which case it is referred to as a Leuco dye , and has an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent oxidation reforms the original insoluble dye. The color of denim is due to indigo , the original vat dye. Reactive dyes utilize a chromophore attached to a substituent that is capable of directly reacting with

2303-475: Was designated an American Heritage River in 1998. Canal System : To further facilitate industrial growth and transportation in the region, the Blackstone Canal was constructed in the early 19th century. The canal ran parallel to the river, providing a vital transportation route for goods between Worcester, Massachusetts, and Providence, Rhode Island. The Blackstone Canal played a significant role in

2352-480: Was not "sufficient to meet state water quality standards". River clean-up is ongoing and as of 2010, the Blackstone River was rated as the worst category ("impaired") for all assessed uses ("aquatic life", "fish consumption", "primary contact" (e.g. swimming), "secondary contact" (e.g. boating) and "aesthetics") up to its beginning at Middle River. Processing problems at the Woonsocket sewage treatment plant and

2401-448: Was used in order to selectively kill bacteria in the body. He also used methylene blue to target the plasmodium responsible for malaria . The color of a dye is dependent upon the ability of the substance to absorb light within the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum (380–750 nm). An earlier theory known as Witt theory stated that a colored dye had two components, a chromophore which imparts color by absorbing light in

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